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Southern Pork 
Production 




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Southern Pork 
Production 



BY 

P. V. EWING, M. S. 

Animal Husbandman in Charge of Swine Investigations, Texas 

Agricultural Experiment Station. Formerly with Ohio State 

University, Kansas State Agricultural College, and 

Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station. 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
1918 



c 



X 



Copyright, 19 i8, 

By orange judd company 

All Rights Reserved 



APR -6 (918 

[Printed in U. S. A.] 



©CI.A492867 



PREFACE 

A leading thought in the preparation of this volume 
has been that swine husbandry offers the easiest and 
safest kind of live stock endeavor to which the South, 
as a whole, is generally adapted. Special emphasis and 
stress has been placed on the practical side of pork pro- 
duction, but as much of the scientific and theoretical as 
may have an important bearing on the practice has been 
included. Successful southern hog growers have been 
freely consulted, and the farm press of the South has 
assisted materially in the preparation of the manuscript. 

The author here wishes to express his appreciation of 
the generous assistance which has been accorded him by 
many, and especially for the aid given him by his father, 
R. B. Ewing, by Prof. C. L. Willoughby of the College 
of Agriculture of the University of Florida, and by the 
many agricultural workers and swine breeders who 
assisted in supplying the photographs. 

P. V. EWING. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER I 
Economic Aspects of the Swine Industry 1 

CHAPTER H 
Principles of Swine Breeding 17 

CHAPTER HI 
Breeds of Swine 48 

CHAPTER IV 
Judging Swine 80 

CHAPTER V 
Showing Swine 106 

CHAPTER VI 
Feeding Swine 121 

CHAPTER VII 
Swine Management 150 

CHAPTER VIII 
Swine Diseases and Their Control 174 

CHAPTER IX 
Marketing 209 

CHAPTER X 
Pork 235 



List of Illustrations 



Pork production in Mississippi modernized — Frontispiece 
Some farmers combine beef and pork production . 
Typical unprofitable Coastal Plain pine-woods rooters 
Moultrie Packing Plant, Moultrie, Ga. 
Distribution of boys' pigs club pigs .... 
Distribution of swine in southern states . 
Proper feeding must accompany breeding 
Swine breeding is dependent on the reproductive process 
This type is on the increase in many sections of the South 
UtiHty should be made the basis of all breeding operations 
Litter mates ; fed by a pig club boy and his father . 
Blood lines of the Poland-China .... 
Poland-China gilt, Jennie Girl (581414) . 
Blood lines of the Chester White and O. I. C. 
Blood lines of the Small Yorkshire .... 
Blood lines of the Duroc-Jersey .... 
Duroc-Jersey boar, Defender's Ohio Chief (45899) 

Blood lines of the Essex 

Blood lines of the Cheshire 

Berkshire gilt. Premier's Queen 25 (179325) . 

Blood lines of the Berkshire 

Hampshire gilt 

Louisiana bred Tamworth sow 

Big Guinea swine on Willow Dale Farm, Mayfield, Ga. 

Points of the hog 

The butcher helps establish the ideal pork type 

From the rear the fat hog presents a compact appearance 

Wholesale cuts marked on Champion Barrow 1913 Inter 

national 

The body of the fat hog is judged largely from the side view 
Large type breeding swine are popular in the show ring 
Mississippi State Fair Grand Champion Sows of 1915 . 
Proper shelter is essential in show fitting 
Personal attention is essential in show fitting 

IX 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Most grazing crops should be supplemented . . . . 
Feed wastes can be prevented by properly constructed troughs 
Feeding city garbage near New Orleans, La. . 
Self-feeders are becoming more popular in the South 
Monitor type winter farrowing house 
Half monitor type winter farrowing house 
The common A-shaped portable hog house 
Cheap type small farrowing house and pen 
A-type individual farrowing houses 
Grazing lots make fall litters profitable . 
Winter farrowing houses in North Carolina 
Lots to which sows and pigs are taken from farrowing houses 
Sunlight and dips are used to prevent disease 
Administering serum to prevent hog cholera . 
Cement wallowing hole used to control lice 
Typical drove of fat hogs coming to the Atlanta market 
Co-operative hog shipping day at Yazoo City, Mississippi 
Too large for suitable pork production in the South . 
Home packing products resulting from high specialization 
Making pure-bred Tamworth pork on Westview Stock Farm 
In the cooler at Moultrie Packing Plant, Moultrie, Ga 
Hung up to cool overnight on farm of O. F. Troutman 
Showing the usual method of cutting a side of pork 
Smoke room of modern southern packing plant 



Page 
123 

133 
144 
148 
150 
152 
155 
156 
157 
162 
169 
171 
174 
185 
200 
217 
222 
230 
233 
236 
241 
247 
248 
256 



CHAPTER I 

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE 
INDUSTRY 

Live stock farming necessary. — It is imperative that 
southern farmers grow more live stock if wq are to have 
a permanent system of agriculture. We can raise more 
cotton by adopting a system of farming that will guar- 
antee an increase in soil fertility instead of a continual 
decrease, as at present. The tenant cotton farmer has no 
attachment for his land. Even the cotton farmer who 
owns his land is in reality a tenant, for he hopes that his 
children may not need to live on his farm, but that they 
will have something better. On the contrary, the man 
on the live stock farm looks far into the future, and he is 
more firmly attached to his land and has its future at 
heart, and he is a true landowner and improver. 

Importance of soil conservation. — Over 40 per cent of 
all products used in the factories of our country have 
their origin in the soil. This makes agriculture the most 
fundamental of all our national resources. We should, 
therefore, take steps to conserve and add to our resources 
of soil fertility rather than to continue depleting them, 
as in the past. This is much more applicable to the 
South than elsewhere, for here, not merely 40, but over 
90 per cent, of the raw products used in our factories 
come from the soil. Without a fertile soil the South can- 
not long retain the position she now holds as the world's 
greatest producer of cotton. We must also have foods, 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



and we need a fertile soil to produce them. Prosperity 
follows soil fertility, and we cannot maintain even a 
moderate degree of prosperity unless we take immediate 
steps to conserve the fertility of our soils. We need a 
decreased acreage and increased production, and this can 
only be secured by live stock growing, with a judicious 
and abundant application of barnyard manure. 

To some the necessity of adopting a type of live stock 
farming may be apparent, but that type which will prove 




Some farmers combine beef and pork production, as on Aldurin 
Farm, Avalon, Ga. 

most profitable is not always clear. At the present time, 
most of the South, notably the Piedmont area and the 
Coastal Plain, is engaged in agriculture of a sufficiently 
intensive type to warrant a careful consideration before 
the growing of beef cattle is adopted. Some sections of 
the South are admirably adapted to extensive beef pro- 
duction, but for the most part swine and dairy cattle will 
eventually prove more profitable. 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 3 

Live stock vs. commercial fertilizers. — A comparison 
of the agriculture of the north and south Atlantic states 
shows the distinct superiority of barnyard manures over 
commercial fertilizers in enriching soils and increasing 
yields. In natural fertility all of the Atlantic coast states 
are nearly on a par, and in this respect the north Atlantic 
states are comparable with the south Atlantic states. 
Nevertheless, after a period of farming extending be- 
tween fifty and a hundred years we find the following 
statistics, taken from the Federal Census of 1910 : 

North Atlantic South Atlantic 

Acreage of improved lands 38,920,614 48,479,733 

Value of live stock $447,056,358 $366,534,152 

Value of products per farm $562 $363 

Improved land per farm 50.5 43.6 

Average value per farm $5,456 $2,654 

Land $2,573 $1,694 

Buildings $1,938 $542 

Live stock $632 $330 

Average expenditure per acre for fer- 
tilizer $0.77 $1.23 

From this it is seen that although we use more fer- 
tilizers in the south Atlantic states, yet the value of our 
products per farm is much less; and while our acreage is 
greater, the value of live stock in the north Atlantic states 
is much higher. These figures show that greater yields 
and prosperity follow live stock, and that we should seek 
to enrich our soils with barnyard manures rather than by 
commercial fertilizers. 

Present situation. — The cotton growers are just begin- 
ning to realize the true state of affairs, and recognize the 
necessity for action. Some are conservative and others 
lack courage. We have seen the work of the pioneers in 
hog raising in the South, and their efforts have resulted 
in a great improvement in the native stock. Today we 



4 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

are fortunate in having a few good swine breeders scat- 
tered widely over the South. It is largely due to their 
efforts and courage that the southern swine industry has 
developed so rapidly in the past 10 years. They have 
demonstrated what can be done. They have not only 
produced pork at a profit, but they have enriched their 
soils, greatly increased their acre yields, and now have a 
competence. It is high time that others follow their 
example. The higher prices of meats in general, the 
continued depletion of our soils under the one-crop 
system, the tenancy evil, and the boll weevil menace, are 
all sufficient reasons in themselves to cause every farmer 
to enter the field of live stock production. The four 
combined reasons make either pork production or the 
beginning of some other form of live stock work an eco- 
nomic necessity, to which we must acquiesce sooner or later. 

Adaptability of the South for swine production.— The 

South is pre-eminently adapted to pork production for 
several reasons. In the first place, we can supply feeds 
for swine cheaper than any other section. We have grass 
a greater number of days in the year than elsewhere. 
This is a blessing in disguise, for grass is the basis of any 
system of live stock farming. The South can have cheap 
grass in the greatest abundance. The mild climate per- 
mits a long growing season for cultivated feed crops. 
Also, the expense of housing and sheds for protection 
from the elements is not so great as in the more severe 
climates. Cheap lands are abundant, and most of these 
are admirably adapted to pork production. The amount 
of tillable land is ample to produce the forage and other 
crops. We can grow the greatest variety of forage crops, 
especially the legumes, which not only supply an abun- 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 5 

dance of nutritious feeds, but which assist in enriching 
our depleted soils. 

Natural conditions favorable for pork production. — On 

account of climatic and economic advantages, and in 
every other v^ay, the South is destined to become a great 
pork-producing section. Corn is increasing in use as a 
human food without the agency of the hog, and the crops 
which will be used for pork production in the South are 
not such as can be used for human food so easily as corn. 
In the South, grazing crops can be used all the year to a 
greater or lesser extent. Not only do legumes and the 
small grains do well, but fattening crops, such as corn, 
chufas, peanuts, covrpeas, beans, sweet potatoes and 
cassava, all make good growth. In an economic way the 
production of live stock in the cotton regions has become 
a necessity, and in adapting ourselves to some type of 
animal husbandry, we shall naturally take to that type 
which has proven most profitable. The seasons are 
adapted to swine production because the winters are mild 
and the summers not excessively hot, as they are tem- 
pered by cool breezes and an abundant rainfall. Diseases 
are no more prevalent than in other sections, and the 
indications are that diseases are rarer in the South 
than in the North (probably due to more sunshine), and that 
the losses are due more to poor management than to disease. 

Pork production a pasturing proposition. — One of the 

principal advantages of the South as a swine-growing 
section is the ease with which so many valuable swine- 
grazing crops can be grown. Grasses do well and culti- 
vated crops can be produced practically every month in 
the year. Summer grasses, such as Bermuda, nut grass, 
crab grass and wire grass, do well; while the clovers, 



O SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

such as crimson, burr, red, white and Japan, and the 
vetches, both the wild and the tame, provide legumes for 
grazing the entire year. In addition, crops such as rape, 
oats, rye, sweet potatoes, alfalfa, cowpeas, velvet beans, 
chufas, cassava, artichokes, corn, peanuts, sorghum and 
other valuable crops, make it possible to arrange for hog 
pastures at all times. With no cheap carbohydrate con- 
centrate, it is out of the question for the South to com- 
pete with the Corn Belt in fattening hogs in feed lots. 
The Corn Belt is rapidly coming to realize the advan- 
tages of grazing crops, but the South can grow a greater 
variety and have more grazing in winter than is possible 
in the North and West. It has for a long time been 
recognized that hogs cannot be successfully produced on 
an extensive scale without pastures, and any large swine 
industry in the South must of necessity be to a consider- 
able extent a pasture proposition, as this has proven to 
be the most practical and profitable. 

Market values of beef and pork. — In making a study of 
market prices of hogs and cattle in the South with corre- 
sponding market prices in the North and West, we must 
of necessity be impressed with the fact that at all seasons 
of the year the prices paid for hogs compare well, with 
occasional better prices in the South. In the case of 
cattle, the prevailing prices are seldom equal to the 
northern and western prices, and in most cases they are 
only about three-fourths of the prices prevailing in the 
North and West. It is true, of course, that southern hogs 
compare better in class with the hogs produced in the 
North and West than the classes of cattle compare. 
Nevertheless, there is a difference which is sufficient to 
have a considerable effect on pork production. 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 7 

Credits and swine production. — One important reason 
why more southern farmers have not entered into an 
extensive system of pork production has been the lack of 
adequate capital, for some capital is required, and bank- 
ers and merchants have not been willing to credit farmers 
on many crops except cotton. With some farmers it is 
therefore compulsory that they raise cotton exclusively. 
Conditions in this respect are rapidly improving, how- 
ever, and banks and bankers are encouraging in every 
way possible a greater production of live stock, especially 
swine. The merchants will be influenced by the action of 
the bankers, and this great drawback will gradually be 
overcome, and the farmers will reduce their cotton acre- 
age and devote more attention to a permanent system of 
live stock farming that will guarantee a more permanent 
agriculture for the cotton belt. The time is near at hand 
when live stock will be considered as much or more of an 
asset than so much cotton. 

Labor a limiting factor. — One of the important limiting 
factors upon a greater swine industry in the South is that 
of labor. It is not so much a question of quantity of 
labor as of quality. The average cotton negro has no 
interest in live stock and has little natural ability in the 
care, feeding and management of animals. This is due 
to congenital conditions and environment. A few 
negroes that have been brought up with live stock about 
them in early life may by proper training become excel- 
lent caretakers and manifest some interest and love for 
the w^ork. While the labor question requires careful 
consideration, yet it is a difficulty that will decrease 
readily with effort toward education. The average cotton 
negro has not been trained to properly take care of swine. 



8 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



Classes of hogs grown in the South. — There is no 
reason why the pork produced in the South cannot be 
equal in every respect to that produced in the North and 
West. To be sure, the hogs that are marketed in the 
South at present vary some from those marketed from 
the Corn Belt. The hogs that are produced in the South 
do not as a rule have the breeding, uniformity of size and 




Typical unprofitable Coastal Plain pine-woods rooters. Courtesy 
S. M. Byars of South Carolina. 

condition of the northern and v^estern hogs. Also, a 
great many swine from the Coastal Plain region of the 
southern states are fattened on peanuts or ground peas, 
with the result that the pork has an oily constituency, 
and is termed soft pork, which is greatly discriminated 
against by most packers. When swine are fattened on 
peanuts, it is usually the custom to top them off with 
corn or other feeds to harden the fat. 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 9 

When we consider breeding, the South is far behind 
other sections of America, and the proverbial "razorback" 
is altogether too frequent. Improvement is rapidly tak- 
ing place and this drawback will soon be removed. The 
number of hogs that are produced on each farm is, as a 
rule, more or less limited, which means than uniformity 
will be somewhat difficult to attain. The improvement 
made in recent years in arriving at the most profitable 
class of hogs from both the standpoint of the producer 
and packer has been rapid, and it will not be many years 
until the South in general will be marketing swine that 
on the whole will compare quite favorably with swine 
from the Corn Belt and West. 

Increase in soil fertility due to swine grazing. — Not 
only is it possible for the farmer to make a profit from 
grazing off a crop and turning it into pork, but by so 
doing he thereby greatly increases the future capacity of 
the land for growing staple crops. This has been clearly 
pointed out by Gray', in reports on some work done by 
Bennett'' at the Arkansas Station, with results as shown 
in the following table : 

INCREASE IN COTTON YIELD DUE TO GROWING AND GRAZING OFF OF CROPS 

Av. % Val. of 

inc. in inc. per 

seed acre each 

cotton year 

due to Lint 

Lbs. seed Lbs. seed Av. yield growing lie. 

cotton cotton seed cotton and graz- Seed 

1899 1900 1899-1900 ing crop 60c. 

Cotton following peanuts 

grazed by hogs 1,771 1,134 1,452.5 61.1 $22.81 

Cotton following soy- 
beans grazed by hogs— 1,588 1,020 1,304.0 44.6 16.35 

Cotton following chufas 

grazed by hogs 1,200 981 1,090.0 20.9 7.68 

Cotton following corn 

not gra zed by hogS— 1,005 798 9)1.5 ___ 

^ Farmers' Bulletin 411. 

'Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 68. 



10 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

From this is seen the great increase in yield in future 
crops by growing and grazing certain crops. Thus, when 
we compute the value of an acre in grazing crops for 
swine, we must not only figure on the amount of pork it 
will produce, but also on the increase in the future pro- 
ducing capacity of the land in cotton, corn and other 
crops. From the above figures we can see, in the case of 
growing and grazing a crop of peanuts followed by 
cotton, that more cotton was produced in the two follow- 
ing years than would have been produced had cotton been 
in the land all three years. In addition, this cotton was 
produced at two-thirds the cost required with land in 
cotton three years straight. Thus in three years' time, 
by growing a crop of peanuts and pasturing them off, 
the farmer not only can make money on each crop of 
cotton and on the pork produced on the peanuts, but in 
the two years following, the increase in yield is more 
than enough to make an extra crop of cotton without 
additional cost. This increase in yield holds over for 
several years. Thus we can see that the growing of 
crops and grazing them off not only offers a direct means 
of profit, but provides for a much greater indirect profit 
through increased soil fertility. It virtually means that 
every man can have a fertilizer factory on his farm that 
will not only supply him with nearly all of the fertilizers 
he needs free of cost, but will itself be a source of revenue. 
Hogs on diversified farms. — At some time in the future 
most of the farms of the South will be diversified farms, 
farms from which some grain, some cotton, truck crops, 
fruit, dairy products, and some meat animals will be sold. 
A diversified farm is not complete without some hogs. 
They can make pork out of what would be otherwise 
wasted. They can save the grain left in the field after 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 11 

harvest; they will eat the left-over cottonseed and waste 
of culls from all sorts of trucking operations, fallen 
fruits containing the larvae of injurious insects will be 
utilized, the skim milk and buttermilk can be made into 
pork, and the droppings of other live stock will be 
gleaned for undigested food materials. As converters 
of otherwise waste products into something with a mar- 
ket value hogs are supreme. 

Southern tendency of pork production. — The south- 
ward tendency of pork production is not better illustrated 
than by reference to the report of the Thirteenth Census. 
In this we find that during the decade of 1900 to 1910 the 
West Central states, comprising the greater portion of 
the Corn Belt, lost 12.9 per cent in number of hogs, while 
the south Atlantic divisions gained 7.2 per cent in the 




Moultrie Packing Plant, Moultrie, Ga. 

same period. The southern tendency of pork production 
is shown in several ways. A study of the several cen- 
suses shows that there has been a continual rise in value 
per head of swine for the several southern states, which 
rise has been greater than in the other sections. Also, 



12 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

the development of a pork industry is attested by the 
establishment in recent years of several packing houses 
throughout the South. 

Boys' pig clubs. — Of all the organized efforts at im- 
provement in the sw^ine industry in the southern states 
none is accomplishing more than the boys' pig club v^^ork. 
This work is fostered by federal, state and local officials 
and organizations, whh the most active part, hov^ever, 
being taken by the Bureau of Animal Industry in co- 
operation v^ith the Farmers' Co-operative Demonstration 
Work of the Bureau of Plant Industry. In each state is 
placed a state pig club agent, a specialist in sw^ine hus- 
bandry, who looks after and supervises the work in his 
state. In this work the county is made the unit, but 
frequently smaller units in the county are made. County 
demonstration agents usually have the immediate re- 
sponsibility of organizing the work in the county. This 
pig club work has been in existence a comparatively 
short time, but already it has accomplished wonders in 
the way of introduction of improved blood, the teaching 
of improved methods of production, and of showing what 
can be done with swine in a small way. 

The objects of the pig club work are briefly set forth 
in Farmers' Bulletin 566, United States Department of 
Agriculture, as follows : 

1. To stimulate an interest in swine production and to 
teach the boys how to raise better and cheaper hogs by 
the use of improved blood and the growing of forage 
crops. 

2. To increase the number of hogs raised on the farms 
in order that the meat for the home and that required to 
feed the extra farm labor may be produced instead of 
being bought. 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 



13 



3. To complement the work of the boys' corn clubs by 
showing the boys how they can profitably sell their corn 
through hogs. 

4. To encourage the home curing of meats on the farm. 

5. To teach the boys how to judge hogs and to select 
them for breeding or market purposes. 

6. To encourage the growing of forage crops and dis- 
courage the use of high-priced feeds. 

7. To instruct the boys in a practical way in the man- 
agement, feeding, sanitation and Drevention of diseases 




Distribution of boys' pig club pigs. Courtesy R. S. Mitchell of 
Mississippi. 

of swine, all of which information proves valuable with 
respect to other forms of live stock work. 

8. To give the boys a means of earning some money 
for themselves while at home. 

9. To instill in the boys while young a love of animals 
which will result in their taking more interest in farm life, 
and to furnish them at the same time some work which 
will in a practical way give an insight into the business 
side of farm life and incite in them a desire to struggle for 
and attain success. 



14 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

The pig clubs are usually organized in a business 
manner with officers. A simple constitution and by-laws 
are adopted. For a president of the club a leader of such 
work in the community is generally chosen. Other offi- 
cers are likewise elected, and the duties are prescribed in 
the constitution and by-laws. Each club adopts a set of 
rules, which are given also in the above-mentioned 
Farmers' Bulletin, as follows : 

1. Any boy between the ages of 10 and 18 years may 
become a member. 

2. Each boy must secure at least one pig if he becomes 
a member. 

3. Each member must care for his stock in person, and 
keep a record of the feed given and the pasture grazed. 
He must record the weight of each pig when it came into 
his possession, and at stated intervals, so as to determine 
the gains. The date of farrowing should also be recorded. 

4. Record blanks, which will be furnished, should be 
filled out and certified by two disinterested persons. 

5. Each member must have owned and kept a record of 
his pig for at least four months in order to compete for a 
prize. 

6. The members must, whenever possible, show at 
least one pig at the county exhibit, and the winner of the 
county exhibit must show his pig at the state fair. 

Geographical distribution of swine in the South. — As 

a result of the last census we find the distribution of hogs 
in the several southern states as follows : 

Delaware 49,260 Maryland 301,583 

District of Columbia— 665 Virginia 797,635 

West Virginia 328,188 North Carolina 1,227,625 

South Carolina 665,211 Georgia 1,783,684 

Florida 810,069 Kentucky 1,491,816 

Tennessee 1,387,838 Alabama 1,266,733 

Mississippi 1,292,119 Arkansas 1,518,947 

Louisiana 1.327,605 Oklahoma 1,839,030 

Texas 2,336,363 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 



15 



From the above figures and from the accompanying 
map it is seen that as a general proposition swine are 
rather evenly distributed over the entire South. The 
larger states lead in total numbers and the smaller states 
have the least numbers. In numbers the states rank as 
follows : Texas, Oklahoma, Georgia, Arkansas, Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, 
North Carolina, Florida, Virginia, South Carolina, West 
Virginia and Maryland. A study shows that the more 




Distribution of swine in southern states according to Thirteenth 
Census. (One dot equals 2,500 hogs.) 

level sections sustain more hogs than do the rougher and 
more mountainous sections. The tendency seems to be 
for the industry to develop more rapidly in those sections 
that are more easily cultivated. There are great differ- 
ences in the hogs of the different sections of the country, 
which differences are largely due to the extent of the 
infusion of improved blood. xA.s a general proposition, 
the farther south towards the Gulf Coast one goes the 
less improved the individual. 



16 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Average value of swine per head. — The difference in 

value of the hogs in the different states is well brought 

out by the following figures, showing the value of hogs 

per head for several states on January 1, 1916, according 

to figures issued by the United States Department of 

Agriculture : 

Texas $7.70 Kentucky $ 6.50 

Oklahoma 7.20 West Virginia 9 00 

Louisiana 7.30 Virginia __ 7.00 

Mississippi 6.20 South CaroHna 8.50 

Alabama 7.60 North Carolina 7.80 

Tennessee 6.80 Maryland 8.50 

Georgia 7.70 New Jersey 12.80 

Florida 6.00 Delaware 9.00 

These figures show how the value of swine in a general 
way declines as we move southward. This is largely due 
to inferior breeding and feeding, both of which can be 
remedied. One of the first efforts to be made in the 
development of a swine industry for the South should be 
to use pure-bred boars and to improve the feeding by 
greater production of feeds suitable for hogs, and by the 
application of modern methods of feeding. There is no 
good reason why just as valuable hogs cannot be raised 
in Florida as in New Jersey. 



CHAPTER II 
PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 

Swine breeding. — While swine breeding is a science in 
so far as it concerns biological functions and processes 
and evolution, it is an art in practice. The practice of 
swine breeding consists in the development of those 
characteristics which are of value to man. In order to 
accomplish this, the characteristics must be possessed by 
the animal to start with. Our improved breeds of swine 
\vould never have attained their present degree of per- 
fection had not the high capacity for feed utilization been 
inherent. This capacity has been cultivated and 
developed. 

Selection. — Progress in swine breeding has been made 
by artificial and methodical selection based on utility. In 
this selection both individuality and pedigree have been 
considered. This selection has enabled the breeder to 
favor and propagate desirable variations and to avoid the 
more undesirable ones. Natural selection has also played 
an important part in the development of breeds of swine. 
The application of the law of "the survival of the fittest" 
proceeds in the domesticated as well as in the wild state, 
but in the domestic state it comes nearer being "the sur- 
vival of the best," since our efforts at artificial selection 
are toward the favoring and fixing of those tendencies 
of special value to man. Thus the progress in breeding 
swine is dependent on the making of those selections of 
value to man, depending upon heredity to fix the selected 
qualities or characteristics. 

17 



18 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Laws of breeding. — From time to time we read or hear 
of the laws of breeding. The farmer or swine breeder 
desires to know if he can make use of these to further his 
interests. It is certainly well for the breeder to know 
what progress has been made in the science of breeding, 
but if it is something very practical desired the breeder 
had best study the influence of environment, the origin, 
history and pedigree of his animals, and make special 
effort toward breeding more prolific strains than to 
trouble about infection, saturation, maternal impressions 
and the transmission of acquired characters. 

Heredity. — Heredity embodies those characteristics 
which an individual acquires from its parents through its 
germ plasm. The laws of heredity are none too well 
understood, but it is so universal in its application and 
has been the basis of our breeding operations until we 
have accepted it as a fundamental. Like begets like has 
been the basis of all of our improvement in breeding. 
Unfortunately, good and bad characteristics are equally 
transmitted, when taken as a whole. Difficulty is ex- 
perienced in placing a quantitative value on heredity. 

In the case of some characters we can measure the 
character accurately, but the animal does not necessarily 
transmit those characters of its body, or somatic char- 
acter, by means of its germ plasm, which we must recog- 
nize as the sole carrier of hereditary substance. Weis- 
mann, a famous investigator, has shown that the re- 
productive cells are entirely distinct and separate from 
the body or somatic cells. The germinal cells alone are 
the carriers of the hereditary substances, and since these 
are formed long before the birth of the animal, the im- 
possibility of inheritance of acquired characters is evident. 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 19 

This germ plasm is highly stable and independent of the 
other cells of the body, which merely act as a carrier for 
the germ plasm. 

Variations. — One of the fundamental principles under- 
lying our progress in breeding is that no two animals are 
alike. All are different. These differences are referred to 
as variations. They constitute to a large extent our basis 
of selection, and without selection we would have had no 
improved breeds of swine. All variations are of two 
types, the inherent or congenital ones, and those pro- 
duced by environment. Only the inherited or congenital 
variations that arise spontaneously from the germ plasm 
are inheritable. Unfortunately, the breeder cannot al- 
ways distinguish between the inherited and acquired 
variations. Environment both magnifies and obscures 
inherited variations, and thereby assists in the making 
of selections. Variations arise spontaneously from the 
germ plasm, or else they are produced environmentally. 
As breeders, we are interested in both kinds of variations, 
but primarily, of course, only in the congenital variations. 

Inheritance of acquired characters. — If a pig is stunted 
and as a result develops a long snout and small stature, 
we would call these acquired characters. If a pig has its 
tail cut off, that would be an acquired character. For a 
long time it was considered that all characters possessed 
by an animal were inheritable and transmissible to the 
next generation. In the light of more recent science we 
must conclude that only those characters that are con- 
genital and have their origin in the germ plasm are 
inheritable. 

Mendelism. — This is something about which we have 
heard much in the field of scientific breeding, yet as a 



20 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

matter of fact it has never proven to have any important 
commercial value. In the past we have always con- 
sidered that the crossing of two distinct characteristics 
results in an intermediate character. This may occur in 
the first -generation, but if the characters are what have 
been referred to as unit characters and Mendelize, some- 
thing very strange happens, for instead of being an inter- 
mediate type it will resemble more or less one of the two 
original characters, and that character or type which it 
resembles most is referred to as the dominant character. 
These first crosses are called hybrids, so far as the par- 
ticular character being studied is concerned. If two 
hybrids are crossed the characters may Mendelize, or 
break up, and all of the offspring do not have the same 
characters, for while about half will resemble their 
parents, the other half will resemble their grandparents, 
giving a numerical proportion of 1:2:1 so far as the 
characters are concerned. This ratio is the Mendelian 
proportion stated in its simplest form. 

Unit characters. — The number of different characters 
that are susceptible to Mendel's Law is unknown. New 
ones are continually being worked out and added to the 
list. It is assumed that most characters that do not 
Mendelize are composed in reality of several separate 
characters, which makes it impossible to study the segre- 
gation of the several unit characteristics of the offspring. 
Since each character that Mendelizes is a unit, and since 
no further division of the character is possible, the char- 
acter is referred to as a unit character. A great many 
characteristics have been proven to be unit characters, 
inherited according to the laws discovered by Mendel. 

Breeding the best to the best. — Since swine improve- 
ment first began, the principle which has led to the 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 21 

greatest success has been the breeder's maxim, "Breed 
the best to the best." While as a general rule this is a 
good one to follow, and in most instances is the best, 
there are instances where it will result in failure. If the 
breed is pure as to origin the results may prove satisfac- 
tory, but if the origin of the breed has been complex, and 
especially if the breed is of recent origin, the practice of 
breeding the best to the best may yield a high per cent 







^"^bW""*^ "•* ' '^ilM 


r r 




..L'^feiQfciAi .^ 


Ml iWMyfcs- ^w_ML 1 





Proper feeding must accompany breeding. Courtesy of E. J. 
McCall of Louisiana. 

of failures. This is easily understood when we consider 
that if a breed is pure there is a variation around one 
mean only, while when the breed is complex as to origin 
and is made up of several types, the variations tend to 
cluster around several means, and marked reversions too 
often accompany crossing of members of the breed that 
appear similar. Therefore, while it is fraught with 
danger in some instances, about the best we can do is to 
breed the best to the best, unless we have good reasons 
for doing otherwise. 

Pedigree. — Our progress in swine breeding must be to 
a large extent based upon proper utilization of pedigree 



22 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

or records of ancestry. Especially are pedigrees im- 
portant in determining the prepotency of breeding swine. 
The boar or sow possessing for several generations back 
high-class individualities in their ancestry gives greater 
assurance of itself being prepotent over another boar or 
sow with equally as good an individuality, but lacking in 
high-class individualities in their pedigree. Our pedi- 
grees are dependent on the record associations, and fre- 
quently it is impossible to trace the pedigree of swine 
back for more than twenty generations. 

Environment. — Environment is the external factor of 
food, climate, shelter, etc., with which an animal is sur- 
rounded. It is impossible to state just the exact influence 
that environment has on animals, but, as a rule, it is 
much greater than one might suppose. The quality of 
early maturity, a much sought for character in our im- 
proved swine, is greatly influenced by environment. 
This factor of environment is very largely under the 
control of the breeder. With it he can accomplish a great 
deal. Environment may be as valuable as inheritance, 
and either alone is valueless. Since environment is 
simply the development of inherited traits, heredity is 
probably the most important. The one great value of 
environment to the breeder is that it so magnifies and 
modifies the inherited traits as to make minute variations 
between individuals discernible, so that selections can be 
made with a considerable degree of reliability. 

Inbreeding. — Inbreeding consists in the mating of 
rather closely related individuals that possess desirable 
characteristics, with the object of fixing or stamping the 
type into the offspring. When carried too far, or when 
the crossing is too radical, a loss of size, vigor and fer- 
tility occurs, accompanied by a strong tendency for the 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 23 

occurrence of malformations of various sorts. The re- 
sults of inbreeding are different with different strains and 
breeds. That inbreeding has a place in our breeding 
practice is indicated by the fact that it has been freely 
made use of in the formation of practically all of our 
improved breeds of swine. In the hands of the right 
man it can be used to good advantage. 

Line breeding. — This is a term that is applied to one of 
the methods often employed by breeders to fix a certain 
type or character on their animals. Most breeders of 
pure-bred hogs are line breeders, for they endeavor to 
breed along a certain line. Line breeding resembles in- 
breeding, but it is not so drastic. It has virtually the 
same effects as inbreeding in fixing characters and estab- 
lishing types, but it acts slower. As in inbreeding, it 
may result in loss of vigor, size and fertility when carried 
out without using sufficient judgment. Line breeding 
has the opposite effect from cross-breeding. In practice 
it consists of the continued use of the blood of some par- 
ticular individual or strain of individuals in trying to 
stamp or fix a certain character into the herd. This 
method of improvement also has its drawbacks, for while 
we are establishing some good characteristics we may 
also be fixing and magnifying undesirable qualities. 
Good examples of this are seen in those extremely well- 
bred animals that in reality do not have the individuality 
to merit registration. Nevertheless, in spite of its draw- 
backs, our most successful breeders have made free use 
of it. At present it is about the quickest way we have to 
magnify and fix a character. The main thing is in know- 
ing the character and in realizing its value, and to have 
the courage and conviction to stick to the character once 
it is known. 



24 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



Cross-breeding. — Strictly speaking, by cross-breeding 
we refer to the crossing of two different breeds, yet from 
the standpoint of breeding it may refer to the crossing of 
different types or strains. This crossing is often made 
use of in our breeding operations where increased size, 




Successful swine breeding is dependent on the reproductive 
process. Courtesy Joe R. Martin of Georgia. 

vigor, thrift and fertility are sought. Many highly bred 
females will not conceive to their kind, and a different 
strain must be used. While, of course, there are advan- 
tages to be gained by cross-breeding, it is not without 
disadvantages. It always results in more or less in- 
stability, and one cannot foretell with what success the 
cross is being made. For this reason it is better to always 
make moderate crosses only, for radical crosses more 
often result unsatisfactorily, the instability of type 
probably running several generations before being 
re-established. 

The reproductive process. — In order that a breeder may 
carry on his work with intelligence, he should become 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 25 

first well informed on the general principles of biology 
that underlie reproduction. He cannot appreciate the 
importance of heredity, the necessity of selection and the 
value of variation until he does this. To understand 
these principles he must first appreciate the cell and the 
part it plays in the animal kingdom. He must look upon 
the cell as the biological unit. He must know vi^hat cells 
are, how they act, and why they are so important. He 
must know something of cell structure, functions and 
processes. 

The cell. — The entire body of any animal is made up of 
cells. These cells may partake of a variety of shapes and 
functions. In the simplest form it consists of a mass of 
protoplasm v^ith a nucleus, with the whole inclosed in a 
cell wall. Within this cell absorption, assimilation, 
growth and reproduction take place. The reproductive 
function is of greatest importance, since the process of 
growth and production of the animal is dependent on 
cell division. The process of cell division is quite com- 
plicated. The somatic cells, or body cells, are being 
built up and destroyed continuously, but the reproductive 
or germinal cells live from the time the animal is con- 
ceived until they are expelled, or until the animal dies. 
Therefore, the breeder should look upon the animal as 
made up of millions of units, and before the entire animal 
can be understood the functions and process of the in- 
dividual units must be understood and appreciated. 

The male germ cell (spermatozoon). — This cell origi- 
nates in the germinal cells in the testicle. After several 
divisions, they are fully developed spermatozoa, and pass 
from the testicle as mobile cells, consisting of a head, 
which contains the nucleus, a neck, and mobile tail. This 



26 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

cell passes to the female organs and is attracted to the 
female germ cells, with fertilization as the result. 

Female germ cell (ovum). — These cells originate in the 
ovary in a manner somewhat similar to the way in which 
the spermatozoa originate. The cell is very large. Each 
of these cells, as a rule, unites with one spermatozoon to 
develop into the embryo from which a pig comes. In 
some instances a fertilized ovum may split and two pigs 
may result from the same cell, but more often each pig 
comes from a separate ovum after it has united with a 
spermatozoon. This cell is not mobile, but it gravitates 
from the ovary to the uterus by the oviduct or the 
Fallopian tube. 

Fertilization of ovum. — The female cells travel toward 
the uterus, and the sperm cell travels about in the uterus 
and may go up the Fallopian tube to meet the female cell 
to which it is attracted. When the two cells meet, the 
male cell enters the female cell, leaving his tail behind, 
with the result that the two nuclei of the germ cell 
coalesce to start the process of cell division which results 
in the embryo from which the pig comes. Since the 
hereditary material of an animal is carried in its germ 
plasm, the offspring partakes of the characters of both 
parents. 

Pregnancy. — When the male germ cell unites with the 
female cell the result is a pregnancy. The pregnancy 
extends until parturition. When a sow becomes preg- 
nant it is indicated by (1) cessation of periods of heat, 
(2) change in disposition, (3) tendency to fatten, (4) en- 
largement of the abdomen, (5) and in the later stages by 
sinking of loins, congestion of udder and external 
genitals. 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 27 

Reversion, or atavism. — Breeders frequently have 
animals appear in their herds that are unlike their parents 
or any near ancestor, but they seem to resemble some of 
the older types of animals from which the breed origi- 
nated. These variations are referred to as reversions, 
and the tendency to revert is spoken of as atavism. The 
tendency to revert is constant, and it seems that the 
higher bred and more specialized our types become, the 
more subject they are to reversion. It seems that even 
through most extensive breeding we cannot escape the 
influences of atavism. Especially does atavism manifest 
itself when two dilferent strains are crossed, or when the 
animals are placed under different or adverse conditions. 
Usually these reversions are undesirable in breeding, but 
those reversions resulting from changed environmental 
conditions can be controlled to some extent. Those 
atavisms that are congenital are beyond our control and 
use. Therefore, the further we advance in our swine 
breeding the greater will be the efforts required to main- 
tain what we have produced up to the attained standard. 

Superfoetation and superfecundation. — This is an ab- 
normal condition resulting from a pregnant sow con- 
ceiving during a pregnancy. They sometimes will come 
in heat while pregnant, and if served may conceive. 
This condition is rare, however. It also may happen 
that during a period of heat a sow may be served by more 
than one boar, with the result that she may have pigs in 
the same litter by both. Such a condition is referred to 
as superfecundation. It will occur often where the 
opportunity is presented. 

Fecundity. — Fecundity of swine refers to their pro- 
lificacy, or their ability to produce young in abundance. 



28 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Fecundity is determined to a very large extent by en- 
vironmental conditions, such as exercise, confinement, 
climate, food supply, and season; in addition, it is in- 
fluenced by such factors as age, size, condition, disease 
and health, constitution and conformation. The most 
common causes of a low fecundity are lack of exercise 
and too high a condition. As to age, usually the number 
of pigs in the first litter is less than the number in the 
next few litters; then, after five or six years of rather 
heavy production, there is a more or less gradual, some- 
times rapid, decline, until the breeding powers cease, at 
about ten years, a few remaining active breeders beyond 
this age. Of course, the higher producing sows are more 
desirable. Even though under the most favorable con- 
ditions natural selection will assist materially in weeding 
out the poorer breeders, care should always be taken 
in the making of selections of breeding animals to choose 
only those animals coming from large litters. 

Determination of sex. — Rules for the control of sex 
seem to have always existed, and they still flourish. 
Thousands of theories have been propounded, and all 
have failed to survive the tests of time. 

The hog breeder. — To be a successful hog breeder one 
must have a high-class breeding herd and yet be able to 
produce each year individuals that are an improvement 
over their parents. This requires a man of more than 
ordinary ability and skill. He must of necessity give his 
work great thought. He should know the demands of the 
market and breed accordingly. The known laws of 
breeding should be utilized. Men capable of becoming 
successful hog breeders are few, especially as compared 
with those who would make successful producers of 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 



29 



market hogs. Above all, the true swine breeder must 
appreciate the principles of breeding, and he should study 
and apply the established laws of breeding to his 
operations. 

Breeding conditions in the South. — The breeding of 
pure-bred swine has never become an established prac- 







■ 




■ 




1 


HfJIH 


1 


^H 






^ ~f^ -~^"^ 




hI 


^^^^^^ 


« 


wm§. 


1 




iH^^^^^r: i" ^ 




^.^^-..mL^^ . 







This type is on the increase in many sections of the South. 
Courtesy Dr. R. Thor Weaver of Florida. 

tice in the greater part of the South as it has in the Corn 
Belt. But comparatively few pure-bred herds are main- 
tained in the South below the southern Tennessee line, 
yet within recent years there has been a decided tend- 
ency for the more progressive breeders to grow regis- 
tered animals. The result has been a rather rapid ira- 



30 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

provement in numbers and quality of swine. For many- 
years past, of course, the cotton industry has predomi- 
nated, but it is rapidly becoming recognized that a 
system of live stock farming is essential to a permanent 
system of cotton production, and that the total cotton 
production can be greatly increased by the proper intro- 
duction of a system of swine husbandry. 

Proportion of pure-bred swine. — In the southern states 
there are approximately 20,000,000 head of hogs. Of 
these there are much less than 20,000 pure bred and 
registered that are used in improving and increasing the 
quality and quantity of hogs. In other words, there is 
less than one pure-bred and registered hog in the South 
to exert its influence in the improvement of every 1,000 
head of grade and scrubs. These figures readily show 
the present status of the pure-bred swine breeding in- 
dustry in the South, and they bring out sharply the great 
possibilities for improvement. Especially do these figures 
show that the possibilities of pure-bred swine business in 
the South are based on sound principles, and that it is 
merely in its infancy in many respects. 

The lack of improved breeding. — While the present 
condition of our swine-breeding industry in the South is 
far from what it should be, it is nevertheless hopeful. In 
order to correct and perfect conditions we must fully 
appreciate the present status of the industry. In the first 
place, there has been a general lack of infusion of good 
blood. In the second place, what pure blood has been 
used has been indiscrimira|icgly mixed with other blood 
and has not been conserv'Sfe Thirdly, grade and scrub 
boars have been indiscriminately and promiscuously 
used. And, fourth, inferior pedigreed boars have been 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 31 

used as sires where they should have been sent to the 
pork barrel. One of the most regrettable sights is to see 
a scrub boar masquerading under a pedigree heading the 
herd of a would-be breeder, who knows no better than to 
assume that, because his boar is registered, he is fit to 
head a herd. 

Better blood always needed. — In all of our swine- 
breeding operations there is one thing that must be con- 
stantly borne in mind, and that is that there is always 
need for improved blood. The aim of the breeder should 
always be to produce something better. With all of the 
effort that will ever be directed toward improvement, 
there will always be room for more. That stage in swine 
breeding will never be attained at which no further effort 
will be needed to maintain the perfection of the breeds. 
This is in a measure due to the fact that there is a con- 
stant tendency for an improved strain or breed to revert 
to an original type, and the higher the specialization and 
the nearer perfection we approach the greater will be the 
effort required to maintain, much less improve, the breeds 
of swine. 

Co-operative swine breeding. — Of late we have heard 
considerable of co-operative dairy and beef cattle breed- 
ing associations. There is no reason why the same prin- 
ciple would not apply to swine breeding. In general, 
the plan would be for a community of farmers interested 
in a particular breed of swine to form an association, 
binding themselves by an agreement to advance the 
interests of the chosen breed. They would agree to use 
nothing but pure-bred and registered boars and sows, as 
each member might choose. The plan would be for the 
boars to be purchased by the association from the best 



32 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

breeders after they had been passed on by a capable 
judge. These boars would then be distributed among 
the different breeders, to be used until such a time as in- 
breeding might result, when an exchange of boars would 
be made. This exchange is then made without additional 
expense to the breeders, and an entirely new boar is 
received. By this method the most valuable boar would 
soon be recognized by his pigs, and these pigs could be 
used for general improvement. Another great advantage 
of such an association would come through the attraction 
of buyers of swine for pork and breeding purposes. 
Such an association, if of sufficient size, could afford a 
sales agent to do nothing else but make sales. 

County swine breeders' associations. — In forming co- 
operative breeding associations the county can frequently 
be most conveniently made the unit, especially where the 
counties have farm demonstration agents or similar 
officers. Under such conditions the formation of an asso- 
ciation is very desirable and should be encouraged, 
especially in every county where the swine interests are 
sufficiently large to justify its existence. The chief aims 
of such an association should be the promotion of better 
breeding, better methods of selling and better and more 
profitable swine husbandry in general. Several county 
swine breeders' associations are already in existence, and 
the county as a unit has generally proven more effective 
than larger and more scattered units. 

Pure-bred swine breeding as a business. — But very few 
swine breeders have attained wealth through their swine- 
breeding operations. The requirements for success in 
this business are as exacting as in any other business, 
and the infinite amount of painstaking work and attention 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 33 

required is such that success is possible with but remark- 
ably few men. Less than ten per cent of those who enter 
the business remain in it longer than ten years and make 
what would ordinarily be called a success. 

Future of pure-bred swine business. — The pure-bred 
swine business is at the very foundation of our entire 
pork-producing industry. Naturally, as in the past, the 
pure-bred herds will be called on in the future more and 
more to improve our pork-producing herds and maintain 
the perfection which has already been attained. The 
necessity of a liberal use of pure blood is recognized by 
pork producers, and the outlook for pure-bred swine is 
good, to say the least. A careful review of the pork 
industry in southern states in general will show that there 
is a very profitable future near at hand for producers of 
pure-bred swine of the right sort. 

Pure-bred swine business looks tempting. — Far too 

many men enter the pure-bred swine business with inade- 
quate capital and experience, and they are unwilling to 
give the business the time and care it demands, which, of 
course, means ultimate failure. True, all breeders who 
have accomplished anything to be proud of have only 
done so after failures and disappointments, but these dis- 
appointments would be fewer if we took greater precau- 
tions in starting. 

Number of hogs to grow. — The number of hogs which 
one can conveniently and profitably produce will depend 
to a great extent on the factor of food supply. Therefore, 
in the contemplation of swine production, one of the first 
considerations should be that of available food supply. 
This will, of course, depend on the feeds and the quanti- 
ties which one expects to feed. A probably easier method 



34 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

of calculating is to place the number of hogs on the acre 
basis, since any system of swine production in the South 
will largely depend on the growing and grazing of pasture 
crops. While single acres have been known to produce 
with one crop upwards of 1,400 pounds of pork, a fair 
average would be somewhere between 250 and 500 
pounds, depending on the fertility. If the land is fertile, 
one could therefore produce annually an average of four 
head per acre that would average from 100 to 150 pounds 
per head. If the land is very fertile, it may provide feed 
for more than this, but the most of the land, especially in 
the start, will provide feed for a smaller number. 

The boar breeder. — There are a great many breeders of 
pure-bred swine who make it a business to breed pure- 
bred boars to supply the needs of farmers and other 
breeders. Such a breeder is forced to breed animals to 
meet the demands of the pork market, although he may 
never send animals to the market. It therefore behooves 
him to thoroughly inform himself on what the market 
demands, for the boars he sells must be capable of siring 
the type the market desires. While fashionable pedigrees 
are desirable, market type and superior indlvidualitv are 
more desirable, and those breeders who breed on pedigree 
alone and who ignore the demands of the market and 
show ring will sooner or later lack buyers for their boars. 
The necessity of basing all of our swine-breeding opera- 
tions on the utility basis becomes continually more and 
more apparent. 

Breeding for pork. — The aim should be to produce only 
the type most sought after, for, as a general rule, those 
hogs that bring the higher prices have been most profit- 
able to their owners. Not only must the selections be 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 35 

based upon the demands of the market, but the owner 
must figure profits closely on each animal. Above all, the 
individuals should be the quick-growing kind, with a good 
constitution and a natural heavy fleshing. They should 
show their breeding and give evidences of their 
superiority. The blocky, compact, low-set animal most 
nearly conforming to the ideal pork type should be 
sought. 

Always use a pure-bred sire. — There is one rule that is 
applicable to all forms of swine-breeding industry that 
should never be disregarded. This is to use always a 
pure-bred sire, regardless of the objects sought, whether 
the aims be to produce animals for breeding purposes or 
for market. We frequently find grade individuals of 
marked excellence that are considered good enough to 
head a herd, but in most cases the resultant offspring in 
the first generation will show marked traces of the 
inferior breeding. 

Continually grade up. — One thing that will have to 
be borne constantly in mind by all breeders is that there 
is always a necessity to select and breed up continually, 
even though no improvement may be sought. This is 
necessary if we are to maintain the excellence of our 
animals. The condition is just as true, or more so, with 
a pure-bred herd than with a market herd. This results 
from the fact that the higher bred and specialized our 
swine are, the greater the effort to maintain that breeding 
and specialization. This tendency to reversion to an 
inferior type is constant, and calls for a constant effort 
at improvement which cannot be ignored. 

Breeding for type. — In all breeding operations the ideal 
must be kept constantly in mind, and all efforts must 



36 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

have one aim — to secure that type. If one is selecting an 
ideal grazing type of hog, he must know what constitutes 
an ideal grazer. In breeding for a special type, ancestry 
must be given due consideration. Individuals possessing 
the desired type, but with different ancestry, may give 
the desired results. On the other hand, the selection of 
individuals with ancestry conforming to the desired type, 
and as nearly similar in characteristics as possible, might 
accomplish results quicker. Less variation in type is apt 
to result when ancestry of similar characteristics are used, 
and the desired type may be fixed in the offspring much 
quicker than where the types involved in the offspring 
varied greatly. 

Type. — Type is a generic term applied to those groups 
of swine of similar size, conformation and utility. These 
various types have been evolved to meet certain demands 
for swine, with certain qualifications. The result is that 
each breed has its own special peculiarities which are not 
found in the individuals of other breeds in the same pro- 
portions. These characters grouped together are re- 
ferred to as ''breed type." In a general way the several 
breeds of swine, therefore, are naturally classed or 
grouped into certain classes, dependent upon their char- 
acteristics. Thus we have the lard type of swine, in 
which there are several breeds. These swine have strong 
propensities for fattening, and their carcasses yield a 
large amount of fat or lard. In the same way we have the 
bacon types of swine, which are inclined to make lean 
meat rather than fat. 

Breed for utility. — All breeding for improvement must 
be based upon utilitarian lines in order to be justifiable. 
This is the prime requisite for a successful breeder, and 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 37 

all successful breeders have made utility the basis of their 
operations and the goal of their efforts. The real value of 
any meat animal depends upon its ability to convert the 
products of the farm that are unfit for human food into 
something that is edible. Its ability to do this most 
economically determines its relative earning capacity to 
its owner. Of course, fashionable pedigree, color mark- 




Utility should be the basis of all breeding operations. Courtesy 
E. C. Mclnniss of Mississippi. 

ings and fads may be given some consideration, but 
utility should never be sacrificed for any of these to the 
least extent. While formerly some of the show ring 
judges failed to recognize these cardinal principles, they 
are now fully appreciated, and the animal that indicates 
having brought the greatest profit to its owner is gener- 
ally given first consideration. 

Breeding for utility involves pedigree and individuality. 

— Some breeders are inclined to place too much emphasis 
on the fancy side and forget the practical, while others 
place too much emphasis on the practical side and totally 



38 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

ignore pedigree and blood lines. What we should aim 
for is a middle ground, which alone can be the basis of 
real utility. The middle ground takes note of not only- 
breeding and blood lines, but of individual merit and suit- 
ability for breeding purposes. For the beginner, this is a 
hard ground to take. He knows that the pedigrees are 
the tabulated record of the ancestry of the individual, and 
only guarantee ancestry, whether they be good or bad. 
A good pedigree would, of course, contain a large number 
of individuals possessing high merit. 

Pure-bred hogs for farmers. — Many farmers are of the 
opinion that pure-bred swine are for the rich and gentle- 
men farmers only, and that they are not suited for aver- 
age farm use, as they lack constitution and cannot main- 
tain themselves under average farm conditions. In the 
latter assumption they are partly correct, but it is due to 
no fault of the swine. What the farmer wants is an 
animal that will make pork and make it cheaply, and that 
is what pure-bred or high-grade animals will do. In the 
selection of breeding animals the farmer can do no better 
than to select a pure-bred boar and either pure-bred or 
high-grade sows, in spite of the fact that they may seem 
to cost a little more to start with, for the advantages of 
type, early maturity and economy of production soon out- 
weigh any extra original cost. Scrubs and unimproved 
animals are, of course, adapted to some farming methods, 
but if a farmer is equipped for pork production at all, and 
desires steady profits, he should consider no other breed- 
ing animals than pure breds or high grades. 

Cross-breds. — The term *'cross-bred" is used somewhat 
more loosely than the term "pure bred." Some authori- 
ties state it is used to designate that an individual is the 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 39 

offspring of parents from different breeds, and that it is 
not necessary that the parents be pure bred, but they 
must be very high grade. Others state that an animal is 
a cross-bred when the sire and dam were both pure bred, 
but belong to different breeds. 

Under certain circumstances it may be well to cross 
two breeds, but the cross should never be carried farther 
than one generation. In the second generation the tend- 
ency is for various characteristics to Mendelize and split 
off, and the resultant great variation is decidedly detri- 
mental. Therefore, if we do any crossing at all, we 
should not carry it farther than the first generation. It 
is true that swine breeders and pork growers in general 
attach great value to crossing breeds, claiming greater 
vigor, quicker maturity and larger and stronger bone. 
These advantages are to a large extent only apparent, 
and experimental evidence shows the advantages to be 
so slight as not to justify the crossing as a regular prac- 
tice. Breeds should only be crossed, therefore, when hogs 
are to be grown for the market. Most any breed will 
cross up well with other breeds, but crossing is usually 
not advisable, and should only be carried out under 
exceptional circumstances. 

Prepotency of pure-bred boars. — Pure-bred boars seem 
to possess a certain prepotency and ability to stamp their 
type that is not possessed by scrub or grade boars. This 
is very much in evidence where a pure-bred boar is used 
on a few native sows, in which the pigs of the first gener- 
ation are apparently almost full blooded. This ability to 
stamp type on the offspring is not possessed by the scrub. 
This characteristic of pure-bred swine is undoubtedly due 
to long and continued line inheritance as a result of 
selection. The type of the pure bred we might say is 



40 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

dominant, while that of the scrub is recessive. This 
means that the type of the pure-bred animal is inherited 
and can be implanted on those swine not now possessing 
pure-bred type. In this connection the fact must not 
be lost sight of that the superiority of the pure bred over 
the scrub is not alone in breeding, for a pure-bred animal 
when starved soon takes on a great many characteristics 
of the scrub animal, and the well fed up scrub can be 





_ 


4 


^ 


^-^^^ 


m^^g 


«^^- 




' .JSSBr 



Litter mates; one fed by a pig club boy and the other by his 
father. Courtesy W. W. Browder of Kentucky. 

made to partake of some of the characteristics of the pure- 
bred type. This shows that breeding and feeding must 
go hand in hand, and further indicates the better and 
more economical use to which a pure-bred animal puts 
his food than does the scrub. 

Why pure-bred swine seem expensive. — When full- 
grown hogs are selling at from $25 to $50 per head, it 
seems to the inexperienced that $25 for a registered boar 
pig is a very liberal price. While this may seem an ex- 
cessive figure to pay for a pure-bred boar pig, it is not. 
Pure-bred swine of the right kind cannot be grown as 
cheaply as scrubs, for they must be better fed and cared 
for in order to be in salable condition, and the trouble 
and costs of keeping up registrations is no small item of 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 41 

expense. The trouble is that too many look at the first 
cost alone. Twenty-five dollars is not an unreasonable 
price to pay for a registered pig to make a herd header 
of, and a sire selected at $75 to $100 would probably be 
far more profitable in the long run than a cheaper one. 
The additional value placed upon each pig in the first 
crop generally much more than pays the difference be- 
tween a cheap or scrub sire and a good, pure-bred one. 

Swine-breeding terms. — Before one can intelligently 
understand the underlying principles of swine breeding, 
it is necessary that he familiarize himself with certain 
terms that are met with more or less frequently in dis- 
cussing the subject. Among these terms we frequently 
find ''pure bred," "full blooded," "thoroughbred," "cross- 
bred," "high grade," "grade," "unimproved," "scrub," 
"native." 

Pure bred. — Used synonymously, but erroneously, with 
the term "pure bred," are the terms "full blooded" and 
"thoroughbred." In speaking of any phase of swine 
breeding it is never necessary to make use of the latter 
two terms, and their use should be avoided as they are 
more or less confusing. In discussions on swine breeding 
the term "pure bred" is probably met with more fre- 
quently than any other of the terms used. This term is 
applied to those hogs whose ancestors came from the 
native homes of the breeds in question and conformed to 
"the requirements of the breed. The blood must be pure 
and the breeding and ancestry must be known for several 
generations back. An animal cannot be considered as a 
pure bred unless it is capable of being registered in the 
standard herd book for the breed to which it lays claim. 
The advantage of a pure-bred animal lies in the fact that 



42 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

its ancestors were especially selected animals, all possess- 
ing certain desirable characteristics insisted upon by the 
men who founded and developed the breed. 

Grades. — The term "grade" is generally used in con- 
junction with one of the breeds, as "grade Duroc-Jerseys," 
or "grade Berkshires." It indicates that the animal has 
one-half or more of the blood of the breed mentioned. 
In its use the term "high grade" is closely related to that 
of "grade." ''High grades" are those hogs containing as 
much as seven-eighths of the blood of one of the improved 
breeds. When an animal becomes a high grade it is 
almost impossible to tell it from a pure bred by a casual 
observation. 

Scrub swine. — Used synonymously with the term 
"scrub swine" are "native" and "unimproved." All of 
these terms '.re applicable to those animals that do not 
carry more than at least a small amount of the blood of 
any of the improved breeds. They bear no evidence of 
superior breeding. None of their ancestors were pure 
bred, or at least if they were it is so distant that none of 
their influence is manifested in the offspring. The term 
"scrub" may be, and often is, applied to inferior swine of 
any breeding. In general, the term "native" has a little 
broader application than the other two terms, and is often 
used to designate the swine of all kinds gathered up in a 
certain locality. 

Breeding management of a pork-producing herd. — To 

start with, a uniform lot of sows should be secured. The 
breeding and degree of excellence of these will be deter- 
mined by several factors. If pork production alone is 
desired, and high grades are secured, these should have 
indications of the blood of one breed only. From the 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 43 

same breed a pure-bred boar should be selected to mate 
with these sows in order to secure a uniform lot of pigs. 
While uniformity of itself may possess no real value, it 
is one of the best paying investments to be made, for it 
generally costs little or nothing and the market pays well 
for it. The selection of the boar should be most carefully 
made, regardless of the ultimate object of the breeding. 
If grade sows are used and pork is to be produced, the 
aim should be to continue the grading up from year to 
year and from boar to boar. Such breeding practice con- 
tinued through but a few years will give one a herd of 
grade animals comparing quite favorably with pure breds 
so far as uniformity of product and resultant offspring 
are concerned. Breeding for pork production alone has 
several distinct advantages over breeding for breeding 
purposes, and not the least among these advantages is 
the fact that in the pork-producing herd it is necessary to 
keep the breeding animals in as high condition as in the 
case of the pure-bred herd. 

Breeding condition. — While we must not forget the 
necessity of keeping our breeding animal in high condi- 
tion, we must recognize the incompatibility of too high a 
condition with the best of breeding qualities. The best 
results are obtained when the animals are neither too fat 
nor too lean, but when they are in what might be con- 
sidered the most healthy condition. 

The results of too high condition. — This danger of too 
high a condition in breeding animals is already well 
known. As to the causes, there may be several, but in 
the cases of the females it is safe to assume that the large 
quantities of fat deposited around the internal repro- 
ductive organs, do not make for the best breeding quali- 



44 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

ties. The excess of fat seems to crowd the embryos, 
possibly pressing against certain blood vessels and 
nerves, thereby cutting off a part of the nutrition and 
limiting the reproductive functions. In addition to this, 
very fat animals do not, as a rule, take sufficient exercise 
to guarantee the most healthy condition. This applies 
to the overfed boar as well as to the sow. In the boar 
the factors of proper nutrition and blood supply to the 
reproductive organs may also play an important role. 

Sterility, or barrenness. — Many of our high-bred swine 
are barren, or sterile. This is a matter of vital importance 
to the breeder. It is not a trouble confined solely to one 
sex. In the female it may be due to failure of develop- 
ment of the ova, to diseased organs, fatty degeneration, 
contraction of the cervix of the uterus, to acid discharge 
in vagina, weakness of the germ cells after conception, 
lack of exercise, and to other physiological abnormalities. 
In the male, many of these same or paralleled conditions 
prevail to cause sterility. Where the trouble is due to 
faulty management, it is the best plan to see that the 
affected animals are allowed ample exercise, that they 
are kept healthy and in good breeding condition, but not 
too fat, and that the sexual functions are not overworked. 

Number of pigs to litter. — The question of the possible 
number of pigs to the litter, the most desirable number 
to have, and the ways of influencing the numbers of pigs 
in litters have attracted some attention from breeders. 
In numbers, it is possible for sows to have all the way 
from 1 to 24. The latter figure is the number of pigs 
farrowed at one time by one of the early sows in the 
history of the Poland-China breed. This litter was far- 
rowed in the herd of Chas. Hankinson, in Warren County, 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 45 

Ohio, the place of origin of the breed mentioned. The 
average number of pigs farrowed is much less than this, 
of course, and for no breed does it exceed ten head. 
Most breeds will average between six and ten head to 
the litter, the fat or lard type of hogs generally farrowing 
the smaller numbers. As to the most desirable number 
to have, it is never desirable for a sow to have more pigs 
than she has mammae. Most sows have 13 possible 
functional mammae. This number is, however, too large, 
and as a rule ten is as many pigs as one can expect to 
handle and care for in one litter. 

The number of pigs per litter and their sex is to a large 
extent beyond our control. The boar has but little in- 
fluence on the number, and in most cases it is determined 
by the, sow. In attempting to correct troubles with defi- 
cient litters, we should first look to the sow for the 
possible trouble. A great many swine breeders seem 
to have the impression that there are direct means 
whereby the number of pigs to the litter can be increased. 
Such, however, is not the case, and the only thing that 
can be done is to keep the sows and boars in the best 
breeding condition. Above all, the sow must not be too 
fat, she should be properly fed, her reproductive func- 
tions must not be overtaxed, and she should have suffi- 
cient exercise to give her the best breeding condition. 
Practically the same management should be applied to 
the boar, for at times the small litters may be due to lack 
of sexual vigor and prepotency in the boar. With care 
being taken to see that the boar and sow are both kept in 
the best of breeding conditions, one should be able to 
secure the largest litters possible with the individuals at 
hand. 



46 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Work done by Carlyle^ at the Wisconsin Station has 
shown that there is a direct relation between the size of 
the litter and the size of the sow, the larger sows having 
the larger litters. The same holds true for the age, al- 
though to a lesser extent, and the greater the age the 
larger the litter, up to certain limits, of course. These are 
important facts and should be kept in mind by the 
breeder desiring large litters. 

Color of swine. — The color of swine usually Is of 
secondary importance. Our pure-bred swine are more 
or less constant in color, because this was one of the 
easiest characters to establish in the formation of the 
breeds. In the case of the wild types of swine, the colora- 
tion, while fairly constant, is, as a rule, variegated for 
protective purposes. The necessity of color protection 
in the case of domestic swine is not present. Color in 
swine has some value in protection from adverse climatic 
condition. Most wild swine inhabit temperate and sub- 
tropical climates, where sunshine tends to produce a 
scalding on white swine. None of the wild breeds of 
swine are light in color. 

Period of heat. — When the sow gives off germ cells 
there are certain symptoms manifested which, taken 
collectively, indicate the period of heat. The external 
genitals may become swollen and congested, and there 
may be a slight discharge. The mammary glands may 
also become slightly congested. Restlessness and change 
of voice are also manifestations. These periods occur 
with some degree of regularity. They first appear in the 
gilt in subdued or premature form at about three months 
of age. After that, they occur every twenty-one days or 



^ Bulletin 104 Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Station. 



PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 47 

thereabout until pregnancy intervenes, when they cease. 
This cessation prevents superfoetation, or double preg- 
nancy, which sometimes occurs in cattle or horses, but 
rarely or never in swine. 

BREEDING TABLE 



Day 


of 
























mon 


th 
























bred 


1 




Date due 


to farrow when bred in month of- 








in 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May 


June 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov, 


. Dec, 




Aor. 


May 


June 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


1 


22 


23 


21 


22 


21 


21 


21 


21 


22 


21 


21 


23 


2 


23 


24 


22 


23 


22 


22 


22 


22 


23 


22 


22 


24 


3 


24 


25 


23 


24 


23 


23 


23 


23 


24 


23 


23 


25 


4 


25 


26 


24 


25 


24 


24 


24 


24 


25 


24 


24 


23 


5 


26 


27 


25 


26 


25 


25 


25 


25 


26 


25 


25 


27 


6 


27 


28 


26 


27 


26 


25 


26 


26 


27 


26 


26 


23 


7 


28 


29 


27 


28 


27 


27 


27 


27 


28 


27 


27 


23 


8 


23 


30 


28 


29 


28 


28 


28 


28 


29 


28 


28 


33 


9 


30 


31 


29 


30 


29 


29 


29 


29 


30 


29 Mar.l 


31 


10 MaylJi 


ane 1 


30 


31 


30 


30 


30 


30 


31 


30 


2 Apr.l 


11 


2 


2 July 1 Aug. 1 


31 Oct. 1 


31 Dec. 1 Jan.l 


31 


3 


2 


12 


3 


3 


2 


2 Sept. 1 


2 Nov.l 


2 


2 Feb. 1 


4 


3 


13 


4 


, 4 


3 


3 


2 


3 


2 


3 


3 


2 


5 


4 


14 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


4 


3 


4 


4 


3 


6 


5 


15 


6 


6 


5 


5 


4 


5 


4 


5 


5 


4 


7 


6 


16 


7 


7 


6 


6 


5 


6 


5 


6 


6 


5 


8 


7 


17 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


7 


6 


7 


7 


6 


9 


8 


18 


9 


9 


8 


8 


7 


8 


7 


8 


8 


7 


10 


9 


19 


10 


10 


9 


9 


8 


9 


8 


9 


9 


8 


11 


10 


20 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


10 


9 


10 


10 


9 


12 


11 


21 


12 


12 


11 


11 


10 


11 


10 


11 


11 


10 


13 


12 


22 


13 


13 


12 


12 


11 


12 


11 


12 


12 


11 


14 


13 


23 


14 


14 


13 


13 


12 


13 


12 


13 


13 


12 


15 


14 


24 


15 


15 


14 


14 


13 


14 


13 


14 


14 


13 


16 


15 


25 


16 


16 


15 


15 


14 


15 


14 


15 


15 


14 


17 


16 


26 


17 


17 


16 


16 


15 


16 


15 


16 


16 


15 


18 


17 


27 


18 


18 


17 


17 


16 


17 


16 


17 


17 


16 


19 


18 


28 


19 


19 


18 


18 


17 


18 


17 


18 


18 


17 


20 


19 


29 


20 




19 


19 


18 


19 


18 


19 


19 


18 


21 


20 


30 


21 




20 


20 


19 


20 


19 


20 


20 


19 


22 


21 


31 


22 




21 




20 




20 


21 




20 




22 



CHAPTER III 

BREEDS OF SWINE 

Swine are plastic. — The life history of every species of 
animal forms a more or less distinct arc, which may cover 
a period of a hundred thousand or even a million years. 
Species of animals are stable or plastic, depending on 
their relative position on the arc of the life history of the 
species. The nearer the species is to the starting point 
of the arc, or, in other words, the younger the species, 
the more plastic it is. At first a species is quite plastic 
and variations abound, and progress in breeding, whether 
it be natural or artificial, is very rapid and easy. Later, 
the inherent tendencies of the species carry it along in 
certain directions, and after a certain time the charac- 
teristics may become so fixed that the species may not 
be able to become harmonized with its surroundings, and 
the result is the extinction of the race or species. The 
swine species is, comparatively speaking, near the be- 
ginning of its arc of development. It is quite plastic and 
variations are numerous. Breeding progress is com- 
paratively easy in the hands of man. Wild swine are 
much more constant in characteristics than are domestic 
swine, for in the wild state mutations not in accord with 
nature are at once eliminated. Under domestication, all 
sorts of variations and mutations have been preserved 
and modified, and the result is that we have many types 
of domesticated swine that are not in harmony with their 
surroundings, which, of course, means ultimate loss. 
Therefore, we might conclude, that, for instance, as com- 
pared with horses, the formation and molding of breeds 

48 



BREEDS OF SWINE 49 

of swine is comparatively easy, and such is the case, 
although we may not at all times be able to see it. 

Original swine. — The original types of swine from 
which our present day breeds have descended have been 
the Sus Scrofa and the Siis Crist at us or S. Indicus, both 
belonging to the species Suidce. Nearly every part of 
the world has native members of the Suidce, but so far 
as v^e know, only the two above have played an impor- 
tant role in the formation of our present day breeds of 
swine, v^hich may be considered as having arisen by the 
crossing of these two strains. The Sus Scrofa was the 
native swine of the British Isles and Europe, while the 
6^. Indicus was a native of Asia and southeastern Europe. 
These are related to the wart hog of Africa, to the 
babiroussa of the East Indies and the peccary of Central 
and South America. The Sus Scrofa was a very large, 
coarse animal, measuring often over three feet in height, 
of a dark gray color with the young more or less striped. 
The Sus Indicus, on the other hand, was nearer like our 
present day swine, being short and thick, with a strong 
tendency to fatten easily and mature early. They were 
of several colors. The Asiatics were the first to do- 
mesticate and make progress at breeding, with the result 
that at a very early time there were three strains or 
breeds of the S. Indicus, known as the Chinese, Siamese 
and Neapolitan, which breeds or strains played a very 
important part in the formation of the present day 
breeds, which for the most part trace to England or to 
English origin. 

Influence of domestication on swine. — Knowing as we 
do the principal characteristics of the original types of 
swine and of the present breeds, we are able to state what 



50 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

changes have been brought about by the process of 
domestication. In the first place, it has brought about a 
marked increase in their efficiency for converting feed 
into pork. It is true that through domestication they 
have lost to a marked degree their capacity to survive 
adverse conditions, but this is not detrimental to their 
usefulness and value, for they should not be forced to 
withstand adverse conditions under present methods of 
production. Economically, therefore, their value has been 
increased through the loss of their capacity to withstand 
the vicissitudes of climate and insufficient food supply. 
A bit of reflection tells us that this is not only true of 
swine, but that it is likewise true of other domestic 
animals and plants, and we find it a general rule that 
those plants or animals which are the most persistent 
are the least valuable. 

Origin of breeds and strains of swine. — While we may 
be continually making new breeds and strains of swine, 
we do not make the material from which new breeds and 
strains arise. We are able to make our new strains only 
by utilizing the Inherent variations already present in 
our animals. We control, develop and magnify these 
variations as much as we are able by controlling the 
environment. Any marked variations are referred to as 
sports or mutations, which mutations cannot be isolated 
and experimented with, but which have been studied 
enough that we know that they are Inherited as units, 
hence the term unit characters, which is sometimes 
applied to them. It is by the assembling of the right 
sorts of these variations that we are able to form new 
breeds and strains. We simply collect Into one animal, 
or into a few animals, those characters and groups of 



BREEDS OF SWINE 51 

characters which are most desirable. These characters 
are then established and stabilized by continued selection. 

It is a noteworthy fact that all of our breeds of swine 
of today have had extremely local origins. For example, 
the Poland-China, a lard type of swine that originated 
largely in Warren County, Ohio, now has a world-wide 
distribution. Among the other breeds, the Berkshire and 
Yorkshire were extremely local during their early de- 
velopment, but now their distribution is very wide. 
Thus we have many breeds of hogs, some very generally 
distributed and of great importance, and others very much 
localized and of less importance. In the British Isles 
alone, there have been numerous breeds described. On 
the Continent breeds and sub-breeds are present in 
abundance, and we find almost every agricultural section 
with its own native breeds. It was not until about the 
middle of the eighteenth century, or a little later, that an 
active and systematic effort was made to improve the 
breeds. At that time the efforts were centered upon the 
production of new breeds, while all of our efforts at 
present should be centered on perfection of what these 
breeders have accomplished. 

Breeds of swine. — Breeds and races of swine are identi- 
cal. By these terms we refer to the several small groups 
of swine that closely resemble each other. The breeds 
usually derive their names from the locality in which 
they originate. Our present day breeds are the results 
of generations of effort, and we are very fortunate to 
have them in their present state of perfection. 

In making a study of the breeds of swine, one is at 
once impressed by their numbers, which far exceed 



52 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

average expectations. Any statement as to the number 
would be purely an estimate, but the number is no less 
than fifty. This large number results from the fact that 
frequently a community will develop a breed that is of 
purely local distribution. Very frequently these breeds 
have considerable merit, but owing to geographical iso- 
lation their distribution may remain limited for years, or 
until the breed is finally absorbed. It is these kinds of 
breeds that are so numerous, and in most instances the 
division line between local breeds and native swine would 
be obscure. The number of well-known breeds that have 
a wide distribution is not more than a dozen. Among 
these the Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Berkshire, Hamp- 
shire, Large Yorkshire, Small Yorkshire, Essex, O. I. C, 
Chester White and Tamworth are important. 

The breeds and their principal characteristics. — In the 

old-established breeds, color, conformation, habits and 
the like need to be considered when determining their 
adaptability to one's requirements. Sometimes active 
rustlers are needed; again, quiet, home-staying, depend- 
ent hogs are best. In some instances quick-maturing 
hogs are needed, and in other instances a slower-matur- 
ing kind may more nearly meet one's needs. Some 
breeds will not fatten well until they are nearly grown. 
Others will fatten at any time enough feed is given. All 
breeds have their good and bad qualities. There are 
various breeds well adapted to our southern conditions. 
There is not so much difference in breeds, however, as 
there is generally thought to be, so that usually the 
preference of the owner may be followed without injury, 
except in those cases where the environment demands a 
particular type. 



BREEDS OF SWINE 53 

Breed types. — In a general way, the different breeds 
of hogs may be divided into two classes, dependent to a 
large extent upon the relative proportion of fat and lean 
they carry when finished. The two classes, or types, are 
referred to as the lard and bacon types. The lard, or fat 
type, predominates, and is best adapted to the corn-rais- 
ing sections, where it economically converts all surplus 
corn into pork. The several lard breeds differ but little 
from one another in essentials, so that as a rule personal 
preferences may be indulged in without disadvantage. 
The bacon breeds do not have the tendency to fatten so 
marked as do the lard types, however, and some breeds 
are either lard or bacon type, depending on the environ- 
ment in which they are placed. Nevertheless there seems 
to be a tendency for the bacon type of hogs to gain in 
popularity, and especially are they adapted to the con- 
version of grazing crops into pork. This is one thing that 
prospective producers of pork will have to watch, and 
that is to see that the breed or animals they select are 
adapted to grazing. In addition, color plays a part in our 
southern climate. The strictly lard type of hog will 
probably never be so popular in the South as it has been 
in the Corn Belt. In the selection of breeds to meet our 
particular conditions we cannot ignore types ; therefore, 
in discussing the characteristics of the several breeds, 
they are taken up in the order of their tendencies from 
the lard to bacon type. 

The Poland-China. — This is strictly an American breed 
that originated about the middle of the last century in 
Butler and Warren Counties of Southwestern Ohio. It 
resulted from the crossing of the Russian, Byfield, Big 
China, Irish Grazier, and Berkshire on the native Warren 



54 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



County Pig. The name is the result of the use of a strain 
of hogs that were bred by a Polander and which went 
under the name of Polands and, of 
course, the China came from the Big 
China stock that was used. The early 
animals of the breed were large 
and quick-maturing, with a spotted 
color. 

This is a breed that comes as near 
as is possible to conforming to the 
ideal fat hog type. The head is of 
medium size, w^th nose straight and 
with the ears pendent. The body 
is compact, with a broad back and 
deep sides. The hams are perfect. 
It is the ideal lard type. In color it 
very much resembles the Berkshire, 
being black with white markings. 
The breed is of medium size, mature 
boars weighing around 450 and the 
sows around 350 to 375 pounds. 

It is not as adaptable a breed 
as some of the others. It was 
made primarily for use in the Corn Belt, where for 
many years it has outclassed all other breeds. It is 
strictly a lard type and is well suited for corn feeding. 
It is an extremely early maturing type, but is of that 
disposition that wants all of its feed placed right before 
it. Some class it as a lazy breed. They are of second 
rate as grazers and rustlers, largely for the reason that 
they do not stand up well on their feet and pasterns. As 
a feeder and fattener, this breed has no superior. The 
quality of pork is quite fat and is not classed as the best 




IbtANP-CmMA (/BZt, 

Blood lines of the 
Poland-China. 



BREEDS OF SWINE 



55 



by some on this account. It is good for crossing with 
other types w^hen pork-producing qualities of the extreme 
type are sought. The boars, however, are not as pre- 
potent as the boars of some breeds in stamping their type 
on the offspring. In fecundity qualities this breed is 
lacking, and has been severely criticized on this ground. 
Dr. A. W. Bitting found 1,086 litters to av:rage 7.45, 
while Dr. G. M. Rommel" found the average to be 7.04 
w^ith 50,000 litters. As a breeder, therefore, it is second 
rate. 




Poland-China gilt, Jennie Girl (581414) owned by Joe R. Martin 
of Georgia. 

The breed is pretty generally distributed over the 
South, but in the extreme South it has not met with the 
popularity that has been awarded some other breeds. 
The prices paid for individuals of this breed were ab- 



* lOth Ann. Rept. Ind. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1897). 
' U. S. Dept. Agr. B. S. I. Circular 95. 



56 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



normally high several years ago, but they are now 
normal and not above the average. The interests of the 
breed have been looked after by several associa- 
tions. The American Poland-China Record Company 

(1878), W. M. McFadden, Sec- 
retary, Union Stock Yard, 
Chicago, 111. ; the National Po- 
land-China Record Co. (1905), 
A. M. Brown, Secretary, Win- 
chester, Ind. ; and the Standard 
Poland-China Record Associa- 
tion (1887), Geo. F. Wood- 
worth, Secretary, Marysville, 
Mo., all register and look after 
the interests of the breed. 

The Chester White.— This is 
a distinctly American breed 
that originated largely in 
Chester County, Pennsylvania. 
The foundation stock for the 
breed came from England, 
principally from Bedfordshire 
and Cumberland. Chinese, 
Irish Grazier, and Normandy 
swine were also used in mak- 
ing the breed, according to 
Plumb. The farmers, prin- 
cipally from Chester County, 
developed the breed, and being a white breed, the name 
Chester White was appropriate. 

This breed is distinctly of the lard type and conforma- 
tion. The face is medium in length and straight. The 
ears break over for the outer third or half their length. 




QtE9TeR-yff/T£ har.a Oeszf 

Blood lines of the Chester 
White and O. I. C. 



BREEDS OF SWINE 57 

The back and hams show the extreme of development. 
As a rule, the bone is small and weak, and it is in the 
pasterns that this breed is noticeably deficient. The 
color is pure white, and the animals average large in 
weight on account of the extreme fattening tendencies. 
Mature boars will weigh around 500 and the sows 
around 400 pounds. Some individuals will, of course, 
greatly exceed these figures. 

The breed is suited primarily for Corn Belt conditions, 
and is not easily adapted to other conditions. There are 
a few small herds of the breed in the South, but they will 
probably never attain any great prominence. They are 
extremely early maturing, but they rank low as grazers. 
They cannot stand up in the pasterns. As feeders and 
fatteners they rank high, but they are not adapted to 
intensive methods of feeding on grazing crops. Their 
color is against them In the extreme South. The pork is 
usually too fat, very similar in many respects to the meat 
of the Poland-China. For crossing they do fairly well 
where early maturity and fattening propensities are 
desired in the offspring. The boars are only fairly pre- 
potent in stamping their type. As breeders they rank 
rather high and are considered as the most prolific of 
the heavy types. Dr. A. W. Bitting^ found 600 litters to 
average 8.96 per litter, which is high for the lard type 
of hog. 

There are a few herds scattered over the South, but 
their distribution cannot be said to be widespread. They 
are probably on the decline in popularity rather than on 
the increase. In prices, they have never brought the 
fancy figures obtained by the individuals of some breeds, 



'lOth Ann. Rept. Ind. Agr. Expt. Sta. (1897). 



58 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



Ohio Improved Chester.- 



but they have been average in price. The Chester White 
Record Association, F. F. Moore, Secretary, Rochester, 
Ind., attends to the registrations and looks after the inter- 
ests of the breed. 

-This is a distinct breed that 
resulted as an offshoot 
from the Chester 
Whites. It v^as origi- 
nated by Mr. L. B. 
Silvers, v^ho developed 
his herd by crossing 
and selection until he 
considered it superior 
to the original Chester 
White. He referred to 
them as the Interna- 
tional Ohio Improved 
Chesters, and in 1891 
an association was 
formed to look after 
the registration of the 
animals. This associa- 
tion is now known as 
the O. I. C. Swine 
Breeders' Association, 
J. C. Hiles, Secretary, Cleveland, Ohio. 

As a breed, it must be considered along with the 
Chester Whites in so far as it concerns a southern swine 
industry. It will probably never enjoy the popularity that 
has been accorded the Duroc-Jersey and Berkshire breeds. 

The Small Yorkshire. — This English breed originated 
in Yorkshire County, England, over a century ago as a 




Blood Lnes of the Small Yorkshire. 



BREEDS OF SWINE 59 

result of the use of Chinese, Solway, Small White, 
Suffolk, Windsor, and Cumberland stock on the native 
pigs of the country. According to Curtis, they were 
introduced to this country about 1869. This is a dis- 
tinctly lard breed. The ears are erect and the face short, 
with an extreme dish. The breed is white, except for 
occasional black spots on the skin, which are objection- 
able. They are small of size, and mature boars average 
around 250, while the sows will average about fifty 
pounds less. They are in all probability not a breed that 
would be well adapted to our southern requirements. 
They are registered as Class A by the American York- 
shire Club, H. G. Krum, Secretary (1893), with head- 
quarters at White Bear Lake, Minn. 

Duroc-Jersey. — This is distinctly an American breed, 
that originated in New York and New Jersey during the 
half century from 1822 to 1872. According to Plumb, it 
resulted from the amalgamation of blood of Guinea, 
Portuguese, Spanish Red, and possibly Berkshire blood, 
upon the native stock, and finally by the amalgamation 
of the local Duroc swine and the Jersey Reds in 1883. 
The latter incident suggests the origin of the name. The 
name Duroc, however, happened to be of local origin, 
and was the name of a stallion owned by one of the early 
breeders of these swine. The Jersey part of the name 
comes from the place of origin, New Jersey. The early 
types of Duroc-Jersey swine were long and rangy, with 
tendencies to coarseness and size. 

Among the noticeable characteristics of the breed are 
the small head, with a straight or slightly dished face of 
medium length and with the outer one-third of the ear 
broken over or pendent. The general form of the body 



60 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



of the hog is approximately that of the ideal fat hog, with 
a short, wide, deep body, with a maximum of develop- 
ment in the hams and the valuable part of the back. In 
many ways it resembles the Poland-China hog in form, 
although it is not quite the extreme lard type that this 
latter named breed is. In color it is some shade of red, 




Blood lines of the Duroc-Jersey. 



which may vary from a very light to a very dark red. In 
some instances they have black spots on the skin, but this 
is not objected to. In size they are classed as medium 
to large. Some individuals attain weights close to 1,000 
pounds, but mature boars will average around 500 
pounds and mature sows around 400. This is one of the 



BREEDS OF SWINE 



61 



most adaptable breeds of swine we have, and on 
account of its color and general qualities it is remarkably 
well suited to southern conditions. It is an early matur- 
ing breed that will fatten readily at almost any age. 

Its grazing qualities are fair and, as a rule, it is to be 
looked upon as a good rustler. When the feed is put 




Duroc-Jersey boar, Defender's Ohio Chief (45899), owned by 
A. Ramey & Bro. of Tennessee. 

within its reach it will consume large quantities and 
make gains as economically and as rapidly as any breed. 
The quality of the pork produced is classed by some as 
lacking in quality, but there seems no justifiable evidence 
for these conclusions. It is, of course, inclined to be a 
little too fat. For crossing on other types of swine, it is 
admirably adapted, and early-maturing, easy-feeding 
and fattening qualities are added to the offspring. A 
cross that is commonly and successfully made is that of a 



62 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Berkshire boar with sows of this breed. The fecundity 
of the breed is high, and the sows have comparatively 
large litters. In a study of the prolificacy of breeds of 
swine, Dr. Rommer of the United States Department of 
Agriculture found that 21,652 litters of this breed aver- 
aged 9.26 to the litter, which must be considered as quite 
high and above the average for pure-bred swine. The 
breed, having been bred along definite lines for many 
years, is quite prepotent, and the boars seem to stamp 
their type and color well on all their ofifspring, the result 
of the first generation when they are crossed onto grade 
or common stock being of the red color and possessing 
to a considerable degree the desirable characteristics of 
the breed. 

The breed is one of the most widely distributed and 
probably enjoys the widest distribution of any of the 
breeds in the South. In prices they range all along from 
rather high to lower and average prices. It is especially 
to be recommended for southern use for several reasons, 
as mentioned above. Its quietness of disposition is a 
most admirable quality, which makes it easily confined. 
The registration and the interests of the breed are fos- 
tered by two associations, the American Duroc-Jersey 
Swine Breeders' Association (1883), R. J. Evans, Secre- 
tary, with offices at Chicago, 111., and the National Duroc- 
Jersey Record Association (1891), J. R. Pfander, Secre- 
tary, with offices located at Peoria, 111. 

The Essex. — This is an old English breed that origi- 
nated in the County of Essex in England, from whence 
the breed gets its name. The stock used in its foundation 
were principally Neapolitan, Black Sujffolk and Berkshire. 



' U. S. Dept. Agr. B A. I. Circ. 95. 



BREEDS OF SWINE 



63 



The early types were both black and white and were very 
refined, showing plainly the results of the Neapolitan 
blood. Early types of Essex were introduced to America 
about 1820, but the breed never 
met with any great success 
here. In many ways the breed 
resembles the Berkshire, the 
blood of which breed it shows 
plainly. The face is broad and 
the nose short and upturned. Tt 
is inclined to be on the order of 
bacon hogs in form, but de- 
cidedly of easy-fattening tend- 
dencies. It is small of stature 
and bone, and possesses ex- 
treme quality. In color it is 
black all over, and white is ob- 
jectionable. The size of the in- 
dividuals is as a rule small, and 
mature boars average around 
300 pounds, and the sows 
about 250. 

Their distribution is not 
widespread, but a few are found in the southern states. 
As a rule they seem to be increasing just a little in popu- 
larity. The American Essex Association (1887), F. M. 
Strout, Secretary, McLean, 111., attends to the registra- 
tions and looks after the interests of the breed in general. 

Cheshire. — This is a distinctly American breed that 
was originated largely in Jefferson County, New York. 
It resulted from the use of Large Yorkshire and White 
Suffolk blood on the native stock of the county. The 
origin of th^ name is obscure, but in all probability it 




Blood lines of the Essex. 



64 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



traces back to Cheshire, England, in some way. The 

older types very much resemble the Yorkshire breed. 
Owing to the free use of the Large Yorkshire breed, it 

very much resembles that breed in characteristics. It is 

smaller, however, and more 
nearly resembles the Middle 
Yorkshire breed. It has a 
dished face, straight ears, and 
a form between the lard and 
bacon type. It is solid white 
in color. They are only me- 
dium in size, mature boars 
weighing around 450 and ma- 
ture sows around 350 to 400 
pounds. 

As a breed it is not widely 
distributed in the South. There 
are a few herds in the South- 
east, where they have been 
bred for many years. The 
Cheshire Swine Breeders' As- 
sociation (1884), Ed. S. Hill, 
Secretary, with offices at Free- 
ville, N. Y., looks after the 

registrations and the general interests of the breed. 




Cmcshirs (/67Z) 

Blood lines of the Cheshire 



The Berkshire. — This is one of the older English 
breeds that originated in the counties of Berkshire and 
Wiltshire, England. It resulted from the crossing of 
Chmese, Siamese and Neapolitan swine on the native 
English swine. The name, of course, comes from the 
county in England where the breed largely originated. 
The early types of the breed had large pendent ears, with 



BREEDS OF SWINE 65 

colors varying from a reddish brown to a spotted color. 
In quality and physical form they plainly showed the 
refining effects of the Chinese, Neapolitan and Siamese 
blood. They were first imported into the United States 
in 1823 by John Bretwell of New Jersey. 

The breed is a type peculiar to its own. In England 
it is a bacon breed, but in America it inclines strongly 
to the lard type. The face is of somewhat medium 
length and is generally dished, with the ears standing 
erect and forward. It has excellent bone and stands up 




Berkshire gilt, Premier's Queen 25th (179325), owned by J. W. 
Strickland of Georgia. 

well on its pasterns. The color is generally black, with 
white markings on the face, end of tail and on the four 
feet. It is only a medium-sized hog and the mature boars 
will on the average weigh around 450, while the sows will 
run about 100 pounds less. Some individuals readily 
attain twice this size. 

Like the Duroc-Jersey, it also is a very adaptable breed 
and is well suited to average southern conditions. Its 



66 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



color is suited to our climate, and, being an early maturer 
and a good grazer, it meets our requirements well. It is 
one of the best feeders and fatteners we have, making 
gains rapidly and economically. It is not of the quiet 

disposition of some breeds, and 
is therefore not easily confined. 
It is a good rustler, however, 
and if there is anything to be 
found to eat, it will take care of 
itself. It is almost as prolific as 
the Duroc-Jersey, and the sows 
show themselves to be excellent 
mothers and less apt to lie upon 
their pigs than the Durocs. 
The quality of the pork is un- 
surpassed, having a very high 
percentage of lean. This breed 
had been used extensively in 
crossing, both in grading up and 
in crossing with other breeds. 
Crossed with the Duroc-Jersey, 
an ideal pork animal is pro- 
duced. Their fecundity and 
breeding capacity is high. Dr. 
A. W. Bitting found 400 litters 
to average 8.22 pigs each, which must be considered high. 
The boars are quite prepotent on account of the age of 
the breed, and they stamp their type strongly on un- 
improved and grade animals. 

As a breed they are widely distributed over the South, 
but they are not so numerous as the Duroc-Jersey. They 
have sold in the past at rather fancy prices, but they do 

'Tenth Ann. Rept. Ind Agr. Exp. Sta. (1897). 







fl) 


y 


1 


/ 


s 


1 


/ 


1 


// 


5 


/ 


h. 


/ y 


1 


fV 


1 


f 


^ 




^ 




? 





Blood lines of the Berk- 
shire. 



BREEDS OF SWINE 



67 



not now range above the average. The interests of the 
breed are largely looked after by the American Berkshire 
Swine Breeders' Association (1875), F. S. Springer, 
Secretary, with headquarters at Springfield, Ohio. This 
association looks after registering the pure-bred animals. 

Hampshire or Thin Rind. — This is distinctly an 
American breed that originated in Massachusetts and 




Hampshire gilt owned by J. P. Tilley, Jr., of Alabama. 

Kentucky, principally in the latter state. It is possible 
that some swine from Hampshire, England, figured in 
the formation of the breed, but no authentic evidence is 
at hand to prove it. There is evidence, however, that 
some Chinese blood was used. In characteristics of body 
the animal possesses many things similar to the Berk- 
shire. The nose is rather long and the ears point straight 
ahead. The conformation tends toward the bacon type, 
but the development of the hams is excellent. 



68 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

The color is black, with a white belting from 4 to 12 
inches wide that starts at the neck or fore shoulder and 
extends back to the heart-girth, generally taking in the 
forelegs. It is not a large breed; mature boars will 
average around 400 pounds, and the sows from 300 to 350 
pounds. As a breed, it seems fairly well adapted to 
southern conditions, and will probably meet with con- 
siderable favor, as it has already done in several sections 
of the South. The breed has not been used to any great 
extent in crossing, but the individuals are prepotent and 
could be used in the improvement of many herds. The 
breeding qualities are excellent and above the average. 
The breed is rather widely distributed in the South, but 
not densely. The prices that have been obtained for the 
breed have been only average. The registrations and 
interests of the breed are looked after by The American 
Swine Record Association, E. C. Stone, Secretary, Arm- 
strong, 111. 

Mule Foot. — This is a rather recent American breed of 
uncertain origin. The foundation stock used was prob- 
ably Berkshire, Poland-China and native blood. The 
first members of the breed were mutations in which the 
cloven foot gave way to the one-toed condition, such as 
prevails in the horse and mule, hence the name. S. H. 
Dunlap of Ohio has been prominent in developing and 
putting the breed before the public. It resembles the 
Berkshire in body characteristics, but the ears are 
pendent, and the color is solid black, with white per- 
missible. The individuals are small to medium in weight, 
mature boars averaging around 450 to 500, and the 
mature sows averaging about 100 pounds less. The 
breed has been boosted a great deal upon the ground 



BREEDS OF SWINE 69 

that it was cholera immune, but they have p-roven to be 
just as susceptible to the disease as other breeds. They 
do not mature very early, and in breeding capacity they 
average pretty well up, resembling the Berkshire in this 
respect. The quality of the pork produced is excellent. 
They are not very desirable for crossing purposes, for 
the breed is too young and the individuals lack in pre- 
potency. They have not enjoyed a wide distribution and 
popularity. The interests of the breed and the registra- 
tions are looked after by the National Mule Foot Hog 
Record Association, W. H. Morris, Secretary, with head- 
quarters at Indianapolis, Ind. 

The Large Yorkshire. — This English breed originated 
in Yorkshire County, England, over a century ago. It 
resulted from the use of Berkshire, White Leicester, 
Small Yorkshire and Solway blood on the Old Yorkshire 
pig — hence the name. The early types were very large 
and coarse, with but little or no refinement, with large, 
coarse, heavy ears and strong tendencies toward extreme 
bacon type. The breed was introduced to America prior 
to 1840. Most of the importations of the breed to 
America went to Canada, where the breed attained some 
prominence, but it has never met with great popularity 
in the States. 

The breed is quite large and is of the extreme bacon 
type. The face is short and dished and the ears stand 
erect. There is a slack development of the back and 
hams, but with great depth and length of side. The 
breed is characterized by a heavy bone. The color is 
white. This is one of the largest breeds we have, and the 
boars when matured will weigh around 600 and the sows 
around 500 pounds. Individuals frequently weigh close 



70 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

to 1,000 pounds. The breed as a whole is not one that is 
readily adaptable to changed conditions. In the United 
States it has not met with much favor, and probably will 
not meet with any appreciable success in the South. It is 
a slow-maturing type. One very commendable feature 
about the breed is the very high breeding capacity, which 
is excelled by no other breed. The litters average nearly 
twelve pigs. The breed is valuable for crossing where 
bacon type is desired. The boars are usually quite pre- 
potent, due to the age of the breed. 

The distribution of the breed in the United States is 
very limited, and the numbers in the southern states are 
few. It is not popular in the South, and probably never 
will be. The registrations and interests of the breed are 
attended to by the American Yorkshire Club (1893), 
H. G. Krum, Secretary, with headquarters at White Bear 
Lake, Minn. 

Tamworth. — The origin of this breed is more or less 
obscure. It probably originated in the counties of 
Stafford, Leicester, Northampton and Warwick, in Eng- 
land, and possibly the Irish Grazier in Ireland may have 
played some part in its development. The foundaticn 
stock used is likewise unknown, but it was probably 
principally Old English stock on which some Berkshire, 
Irish Grazier, and some White and Neapolitan stock were 
used. The name comes from Tamworth, a borough on 
the borders of Stafford and Warwickshire, in England. 
The early type did not differ materially from the present 
day type, having long legs and snout, narrow body, a 
slow-maturing capacity, with great constitution and 
activity, which combined to make it an excellent grazer. 
It was a farmer's hog and was improved largely by 



BREEDS OF SWiNE 71 

farmers. The first importation of the breed was made in 
1882 by Thomas Bennett of Illinois. 

The Tamworth has a striking appearance, with a long 
head, body and legs. The snout is, as a rule, noticeably 
long and narrow. The ears arc large and erect. The 
back is narrow and the hams deficient. Some individuals 




Louisiana bred Tamworth sow. Courtesy B. M. Jackson. 

represent the extreme bacon type. The color is red, 
generally a sandy red, and usually is not as bright as the 
Duroc color. Some individuals attain great weight, and 
the breed is a large one. The mature boars will average 
around 500 pounds and the sows around 400 to 450. 

The breed is not so well adapted to southern conditions 
where modern methods are used. It is a breed that will 
stand much abuse and is, therefore, suited to conditions 
where the hogs must range over a wide territory for their 
food supply. It is a slow-maturing animal, but as a 
grazer it ranks high. As a feeder and fattener it is only 
medium, for it has never been developed to the extremes 



72 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

along these lines, as have some of the other breeds. The 
quality of the meat produced is excellent. As an animal 
for crossing with other stock it is excellent where certain 
rustling qualities are desired, and the boars will usually 
be found quite prepotent in stamping their type. 

The breed is pretty widely distributed over the South, 
but the numbers are comparatively few. It seldom meets 
with much popularity on account of i.s unattractive 
appearance. It yet remains to be seen how nearly it meets 
our requirements. The American Tamworth Swine 
Record Association (1897), E. N. Ball, Secretary, Ann 
Arbor, Mich., looks after the registrations and general 
interests of the breed. 

The Victoria. — Two strains of this breed were pro- 
duced, one by Col. F. D. Curtis in Saratoga County, N.Y., 
and the other by Geo. F. Davis of Dyer, Ind. The sow. 
Queen Victoria, was one of the early notables of the 
breed. In many respects they resemble the Middle York- 
shire, the face having a medium dish, with the ears small 
and erect, and of medium lard type. They are white in 
color, in size they are medium, and mature boars will 
average about 500 pounds, and the sows about 100 pounds 
less. They are, as a rule, not well adapted to southern 
conditions on account of their color, and there are but 
very few in the South. The registrations are handled 
and the interests of the breed looked after by the Victoria 
Swine Breeders' Association, which was organized in 
1886. 

The Large Black hog. — A breed of swine that has come 
into prominence in recent years that may play a role in 
southern swine husbandry is the Large Black pig from 



BREEDS OF SWINE 73 

England, The popularity of this breed is increasing. 
The origin is obscure, but it has been developed in the 
east and the south of England. The breed is large, as 
the name implies; the bodies are long and of bacon 
tendencies, with a general coarseness of all parts, es- 
pecially of the head, which has a long, pendent ear. The 
individuals of this breed are good feeders and do 
well under conditions of adverse food supply, es- 
pecially where the food is obtained by considerable efifort. 
The breed is quite prolific, and litters usually average 
between 10 and 12. The interests of the breed in this 
country are looked after by the American Large Black 
Pig Society, Lexington, Ky., of which Mr. J. F. Cook is 
Secretary. 

Big Guinea hogs. — This is the only breed of hogs that 
can be classed as strictly southern. It originated in the 
South. Forty or 50 years ago it was quite popular. 
While this was a distinct breed, no attempt has been 
made to record them and keep them pure. They have 
been kept pure only in a few places. The origin of the 
breed is more or less obscure, but the Essex is reputed to 
have had a part in their improvement. They also show 
evidences of Berkshire blood. In color they are either 
solid black or else black and white spotted, like the 
spotted Poland-China. The ears are short and thin and 
stand erect ; they have a nose of medium length, which is 
straight; the body is only average in dimensions; the 
hair is thin and sometimes wavy; they are character- 
istically short of leg and at first glance they appear 
dumpy; they rank intermediate in type, and are reputed 
to have a high dressing percentage, yielding a pork of 
high quality.. 



74 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



The individuals of the breed seem to do well on rather 
limited feed supply, and having been bred along grazing 
lines they are to be classed as excellent grazers. They 



^^Mif^fiiaMii 



Big Guinea swine on Willow Dale Farm, Mayfield, Ga. 

have an advantage in the shortness of leg in that a 
comparatively low^ fence w^ill retain them. While the 
pigs grow^ off at a fairly rapid rate, the mature indi- 
viduals of the breed do not attain a large size. The 
mature sov^s weigh from 200 to 250 pounds, and the boars 
from 250 to 300 pounds. They are only fairly prolific, 
averaging from six to ten pigs a litter. Their distribution 
has been confined chiefly to the southern states east of 
the Mississippi River, although a few have been taken 
into Arkansas and other southwestern states. As to just 
what part these hogs will play in the future swine 
industry of the South it is difficult to state. They have 
certainly declined in numbers and popularity for several 
years, but just at the present time considerably more 
interest is being manifested in them. 



BREEDS OF SWINE 75 

The best breed.— There are 20 or 30 different breeds of 
swine. Each of these is claimed to be the best by its 
supporters. Strictly speaking, from a market standpoint, 
this matter of breed is of but little consequence. Swine 
are intended for the production of pork, and on the mar- 
ket we find that they are bought and sold strictly upon 
the basis of their pork-producing capacities. The prices 
do not vary according to the breed, but according to 
condition and quality. What one wants, therefore, are 
breeding animals that will produce individuals which will 
economically grow into pork. The principal considera- 
tions are, therefore, the selection of those animals regard- 
less of particular characteristics of some particular breed, 
but emphasizing those points that make the animal a 
more economical producer of pork. 

The question is frequently asked as to which is the best 
breed of hogs. There is no best breed for all conditions 
of soil, climate and food supply. The breeds have their 
adaptabilities, and one might succeed admirably where 
others would fail utterly. For the most part, however, 
the selection of breed will be a matter of taste. The 
special advantage and qualifications of each breed should 
be carefully weighed before a final decision is made. 

The selection of a breed. — Tn selecting a breed to use, 
the preferences of the breeder should have considerable 
weight. The personal interest and belief in a breed has a 
great deal to do with success. As a matter of fact, numer- 
ous experiments at various experiment stations have 
shown that no one breed is always superior to the other 
breeds. The only exception to this is that in Canada the 
Berkshires excelled the other breeds in a noticeable 
number of instances. Generally it is better to select the 



7() SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

breed most raised in the neighborhood, as it gives an 
opportunity for co-operation with neighbors, and is apt to 
result in better prices and greater interest. It is impor- 
tant to select a breed adapted to the particular farm or 
neighborhood, with special reference to pasture and feed 
supply. In the selection of a breed tor average southern 
conditions there are several considerations that can be 
generally observed. First, white breeds should be 
avoided to a limited extent at least. Then those breeds 
that are of the extreme lard or extreme bacon type 
should be avoided. This means that a black or red breed 
of a rather intermediate type would be best suited to aver- 
age southern conditions, and as it happens such is the case. 

The type of hog best suited to southern conditions is a 
semi-grazer type, such as the type approached by the 
English Berkshire and some other breeds. All of our 
present breeds have been developed, for the most part, to 
consume large quantities of concentrated grains. What 
is needed is a type adapted to the consumption of large 
quantities of green forage and crops such as we can easily 
raise and such as can be harvested by the hogs them- 
selves. It is a fact that something a little more special- 
ized than what we now have is needed, but we should 
adapt one of our present breeds to meet the new condi- 
tions. We want a hog with a larger stomach than the 
present types have, a more active hog, and one that is 
strong in bone and that stands up well on its pasterns, 
and one that is able to search out a living, even though it 
may be difficult to find. Some of our native swine 
possess this latter characteristic to a marked degree, but 
there are other improvements that our native swine do 
not possess that we desire. 



BREEDS OF SWINE 77 

Registration of swine. — Every breeder of pure-bred 
swine that expects to sell registered stock for breeding 
purposes will find it necessary to keep his animals regis- 
tered up. It is a simple matter, but one that is often 
neglected because of the fear of inability to make out the 
application papers correctly. The registering of pigs is 
often neglected, and later one finds it impossible to trace 
animals and have them recorded. The result is that many 
animals have been sold as pure bred, eligible to registry, 
for which it has been impossible to trace the pedigree. 
One, in purchasing, is therefore forced to assume that all 
animals, especially the older animals, are not pure bred 
unless the breeding certificates accompany them. The 
breeder should keep all breeding animals recorded up to 
date, and when pigs are sold the papers should be secured 
at once and forwarded, or if they have already been 
secured, they should be transferred at once to the new 
owner. When one has pigs to register he should write to 
the vSecretary of the association in which the sire and dam 
are recorded, and he will send the blanks and instructions 
required to be filled out before pigs can be registered. 
These application blanks are filled out, and a fee per head 
is generally charged, which is to cover the costs of regis- 
tering the animals and maintaining the association. 

Practically every breed has an association that looks 
after the registrations, and some breeds have several. 
The matter of keeping up the registrations is one that the 
breeder of pure-bred swine cannot afiford to neglect. 

Purpose of record associations. — The work of the swine 
record associations is classified under two heads. The 
first of these is the record work, and the second is the 
exploitation work. The first of these is of the greatest 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

importance, since it has to do with the improvement and 
preservation of the purity of the breed. The success of 
all swine breeders, whether breeders of pure-bred swine 
or producers of pork, is dependent to a greater or lesser 
degree on the swine record associations. Were it not for 
our record associations our present perfection would soon 
be lost and largely absorbed by the abundance of unim- 
proved swine. The recording work of the associations 
becomes all the more important as the number of indi- 
viduals in the breed increases. These swine breeders' 
associations are generally officered by men who have 
attained more or less distinction in some way in connec- 
tion with the breed they serve. Stability and perfection 
in organization are two important essentials for complete 
success of the swine record associations. 

Exploitation work of record associations. — Aside from 
the work and good the swine record associations do in 
keeping the records of breeding, they should advance the 
interests of the breed they record in every way possible. 
Above all, they should encourage perfection and improve- 
ment in the individuals of their breed. 

Swine shows create a desire for better stock, but they 
fail to show wherein one can profit by the adoption of the 
pure breds or improved types instead of the unimproved 
scrubs. The farmer must be able to see the economic 
value of making any change before he makes it. One way 
in which this can be encouraged is for a method to be 
devised whereby the reasons for making awards in the 
show ring can be explained. The judges, and others, 
sometimes try to supply this much needed information, 
but the record associations should also strive to show the 
advantages of the pure bred over the scrub. The breed- 



BREEDS OF SWINE 



79 



ers must be encouraged and receive appreciation of their 
accomplishments. 






Points of the hog. 






1— Snout 


10— Chest 


18- 


-Point of hip 


2— Eye 


11— Heart girth 


19- 


-Rump 


3— Face 


12— Back 


20- 


-Belly 


4— Ear 


13— Loin 


21- 


-Ham 


5— Jowl 


14— Side 


22- 


-Stifle joint 


6— Neck 


15— Tail 


23- 


-Hock 


7 — Shoulder 


16— Front flank 


24- 


-Foot 


8— Front leg 


17— Rear flank 


25- 


-Dew-claws 


9— Hind leg 









CHAPTER IV 
JUDGING SWINE 

Judging swine. — The judging of swine is the exercising 
of the ability to distinguish between the respective merits 
of swine intended for special purposes. The standards 
for comparison are ideals. A good judge of swine must 
possess a clear conception of what constitutes an ideal. 
When a pen of swine is placed before him to be judged 
he must be able to recognize values. Especially must a 
judge stick to his ideal type and have the conviction of his 
judgment to enable him to stand by his decision. As a 
rule, the judging of swine is best learned by association 
with a good judge. The judge should be encouraged to 
discuss the various points of the hogs being judged in 
order to illustrate the standards of perfection he employs. 
If, in addition to this, one can become familiar with a 
good herd, the standard types may be more readily fixed 
in mind. It is not often that the same person can become 
a good judge of several breeds, but almost anyone may 
become a fair judge of swine in a general way after a 
short time of practice and application. 

In the main, we judge hogs on three bases. The first 
of these is the market hog basis, in which pork is the 
direct object sought. In the second place, we judge for 
breeding purposes, in which the production of swine for 
slaughter is the ultimate object ; we sometimes judge on 
the feeding or stock hog basis. Since at the bases of all 
swine judging is ultimate slaughter, we may well say that 
the second and third bases of judging are merely exten- 

80 



JUDGING SWINE 81 

sions of the first, and that the all-important point to bear 
in mind is the ideal market type hog. 

Producer's ideal. — In order to more intelligently and 
profitably carry out the business of pork production, one 
should know the demands of the market. He should have 
firmly fixed in his mind the ideal market hog. The pro- 
ducer or feeder must see the finished product in his mind 
before the animal is finished, or he will never be able to 
attain the ideal. To appreciate and understand what 
constitutes the ideal market hog, one should go to the 
market and study the several market types in detail and 
learn which types are in greatest demand. The best 
swine shows should be attended and special study should 
be made of the prize winners. Of course, the demands on 
different markets differ, but in general the ideal market 
type is similar, and one should learn this ideal and 
attempt to produce it in order that the swine he produces 
may bring the highest market price. 

Classification. — As a general rule, hogs fall into one of 
two classes. Most of the swine in the South are what are 
known as the lard or fat hog type. Contrasted with this 
is the bacon type, that is used primarily in the production 
of bacon. The two types are of different conformation. 
The lard type is the type that has been largely developed 
in the Corn Belt. On the market hogs of the lard type go 
for the production of lard, cheap side meat, some bacon, 
hams and shoulders. The bacon types of hogs furnish 
bacon as their principal cuts, although they also furnish 
hams and shoulders. The type of hog best suited for the 
South is not the extreme lard type, but is an intermediate 
between the lard and bacon types, a type that is a g-^od 



82 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

grazer and that can gather its own living, and yet one 
that makes good use of the feed allowed it. Funda- 
mentally, the requirements in judging the two types of 
hogs are the same, and we shall therefore largely discuss 
the subject of judging from the standpoint of the ideal 
market type. To facilitate this study and the judging of 
swine a score card has been developed to cover the ideal 
market type. 

Method in judging. — One cannot become an expert 
judge of swine without considerable training. It is true 
that to some the matter of judging is easier than to 
others. However, in order to make accurate observa- 
tions and become expert in the placing of swine, it is 
necessary that one use some method or system in ascer- 
taining the relative merits of the animals being judged. 
Above all, the judge must know what constitutes the 
ideal type. Probably the best way to fix this in mind is 
by means of the score card. The score card should be 
used freely, especially by the beginner. Later on, as one 
becomes more expert, he can go through the process of 
scoring in his mind, and then later make the placings 
according to the mental scores. A good plan to follow is 
to take up first the matter of general appearance, under 
which weight, form, condition and quality should each be 
given consideration. Then the several parts of the head 
and neck should be looked over, followed by an exami- 
nation of the forequarters, body, and last by the hind- 
quarters. The ease, facility and accuracy with which the 
animals can be correctly placed will depend on the skill 
and expertness of the judge. 

Pork type. — In conformation the ideal market hog and 
the ideal pork animal are identical. The general expres- 



JUDGING SWINE 83 

SCORE CARD 
MARKET HOGS 

Standard Actual 
GENERA T, APPEARANCE— 30 per cent 

Weight — According to age 4 

Form — Medium depth, breadth and length ; 
smooth, compact and symmetrical ; standing 

squarely on short legs 8 

Quality — Hair smooth and fine, with strong, clean 

bone; general refinement 5 

Condition — Finished, deep, even covering of firm 

flesh. Free from wrinkles 8 

Temperament— Quiet and placid 2 

Constitution — Showing indications of having been 
a profitable feeder and now in a healthy 
condition 3 

HEAD AND NECK— 6 per cent 

Snout — Medium length and breadth 1 

Eyes — Clear and not sunken 1 

Face—Short, with full cheeks 1 

Ears — Medium sized and neatly attached 1 

Jowl— Full but neat 1 

Neck — Thick and short, smoothly blended to 

shoulder 1 

FOREQUARTERS— 12 per cen 

Shoulders — Smooth and compact on top, with 

medium breadth and depth 8 

Breast— Full breadth but neat 2 

Legs — Straight, short, strong, standing up well on 

short pasterns 2 

BODY— 34 per cent 

Chest — Deep, wide, large heart girth 4 

Sides — Deep, full, smooth, medium length 8 

Back — Broad, strong, evenly covered 8 

Loin — Wide, thick and strong 10 

Belly— Straight, smooth, trim 4 

HINDQUARTERS— 18 per cent 

Hips — Broad and smooth 3 

Rump — Long, level, wide, smooth 3 

Ham — Heavily fleshed, wide, deep and full 10 

Legs — Straight, short, strong, standing up on short 

pasterns. Bone clean and hard 2 

Total score 100 



84 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

sion of the animal should be neither active and masculine, 
nor should it be passive and effeminate, but rather inex- 
pressive and negative, with a tendency toward the 
passive and lymphatic, characteristic of an unsexed 
anim-al. A description of an ideal- rrrarket or fat hog is 
given later. Proper conformation is especially important. 

Early pork types. — The attainment of great weights 
seems to have been the chief aim of our earlier producers 
of pork. This idea was especially fostered in the show 
ring. Today the market discriminates against the large 
and excessively fat hog, yet the demand on the part of 
the average fair visitor is still to see the largest hog. The 
attainment of these great weights was a little more ex- 
cusable in the former days of cheap feeds than now, but 
with the market demands as they are, and with the 
demand for meats on the farm from small hogs, size is no 
longer to be given such consideration in the show ring, 
and the standards will be placed more along utilitarian 
lines. 

The ideal market hog. — The ideal porker fulfills in 
every detail the requirements of the purpose for which it 
is to be used in so far as such is possible. In a study of 
the ideal fat hog we look at his value as an animal 
designed for use as food, and do not take into account the 
value of the animal as a breeder, or whether or not the 
meat he carries was produced at a profit or loss. It is 
therefore the butcher and consumer of pork that set the 
standards of the ideal fat hog, but these standards must 
not be contrary to economical feeding and breeding. 
What the butcher demands is what should concern us. 
He demands conformation, quality and finish, a high 



JUDGING SWINE 



dressing percentage and a high percentage of high-priced 
cuts. These are vital points with the butcher. If, in 
addition to the above, the animal possesses quality, the 
value of the carcass is still more enhanced because 




The butcher helps establish the ideal pork type. Courtesy O. F. 
Troutman of Kentucky. 

quality is associated w^ith high dressing per cent and high 
percentage of high-priced cuts. The butcher demands 
finish or fat because it also adds to the dressing per- 
centage and increases the percentage of high-priced cuts, 
for it is mostly in the higher-priced cuts that an excess of 
fat is deposited. In short, the ideal fat hog is synony- 
mous with the ideal pork type. 



86 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



General appearance. — A blocky appearance from every 
angle should be the first impression gained in the judging 
of an ideal market animal. From the side view the body 
is rectangular, with lots of depth and not too much length. 

The body is wide and set 
squarely on short, strong legs. 
There is a general smooth- 
ness of outline, with all parts 
so blending and balanced as 
to create a symmetrical ap- 
pearance. The top line, side 
line and underline are all 
straight or nearly so, and 
especially should a straight 
edge placed along the side of 
the finished market hog touch 
at all points between the 
shoulder and ham, with an 
absence of wrinkles. In short, 
the appearance should be 
such that a maximum of 
valuable meat is seen with as 




From the rear the fat 
hog presents a compact 
appearance. Courtesy 
B. P. Folk of North 
Carolina. 



small amount of waste as is possible. 



Weight. — This was formerly a much more important 
consideration than now. Now the demands of the mar- 
ket and the show standards have so changed that weight 
in fat hogs is of secondary importance. Naturally, with 
the required condition, weight will largely take care of 
itself. For pork type weights between 175 and 200 
pounds would be ideal. Weight should always be con- 
sidered in connection with age, for of two animals 
weighing the same, and other things being equal, the one 



JUDGING SWINE 



87 



that is the j^ounger should be given the preference. Fat 
hogs should never v^eigh less than a pound for each day 
of age. 

What constitutes form. — A judge of swine must appre- 
ciate what constitutes form in swine. When he sees 




Wholesale cuts marked on Chaiiipiun Barrow 1913 Internatiunai 
Owned by lowana Farms, Davenport, Towa. 

excessive development in certain parts, he should be able 
to tell what the development consists of. He must appre- 
ciate to what extent form is due to fat deposition. Indi- 
viduals and breeds of swine vary greatly in the distribu- 
tion of fat and lean over the body. In this respect there 
is a great difference between our improved and unim- 
proved individuals. The unimproved swine are inclined 
to store fat in those parts where it will be of least value, 
such as in the body cavity surrounding the several 



05 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

organs, while the improved swine are inclined to store it 
more in those parts where fat has value, such as on the 
back and hams, and between the muscles. Thus the 
rotund and smooth form which a market hog takes on 
when finished is due to a large extent to skeletal and 
muscular development, but to a greater extent to the 
deposition of fat over and in the muscles and under the 
skin. The expert judge can tell by the touch the degree 
to which excessive development consists of fat and lean 
development. To do this it is necessary that he under- 
stand thoroughly the anatomy of the hog. 

The Head of the ideal market hog should be short and 
broad, with large, bright, clear eyes set wide apart, and 
with indications of a gentle, passive, lymphatic tempera- 
ment. The nostrils should be large and open, general 
features clean cut, indicative of breeding. The wide 
forehead and heavy jowl, with medium fine ears, are 
other points to be looked for in the head. 

The Neck should be very short, thick and meaty, with 
a neat blending at the head and shoulders. Long necks 
are especially undesirable. The arch of the body should 
continue with the neck in such a manner that the attach- 
ment of body and neck is hardly discernible. The jowl 
should extend from the jaw beneath the entire neck to 
the shoulder. 

The Shoulders should be smooth and rounding on top 
and evenly covered, blending perfectly with the rest of 
the body. The tops of the shoulder blades should not be 
prominent and stand out, but should be nicely rounded 
over and snug and neat. Rough shoulders constitute one 
of the most common defects in market hogs, as they tend 



JUDGING SWINE 89 

to make the development back of the shoulders appear 
deficient, and they indicate an excess of bone. 

Chest — On the fat hog the development of the chest is 
of minor consideration from the standpoint of the de- 
mands of the butcher. From the standpoint of the pro- 
ducer, this point is of considerable importance. The 
chest is that part lying- between the shoulders and imme- 
diately behind them, and it should be very wide and deep. 
High development of chest is associated with constitu- 
tion and vigor. A narrow, shallow chest with a small 
heart girth denotes a lack of constitution, vigor and 
vitality. 

The Back should be wide and smooth, with a slight 
arch. The back is that part extending from the tops of 
the shoulder blades to the last rib. It furnishes some 
high-priced meats and should receive critical considera- 
tion. Too much width, due to natural spring of rib and 
fleshing, is impossible. Deep fleshing is most to be 
desired. In addition, it is desirable that the back be 
short, as the tendency with too long a back is to break 
down in the top-line. 

The Rihs should be deep and well covered, with deep, 
long sides that will cut out a good strip of bacon or fat 
bellies. With a well-sprung rib, more space is offered 
for the deposition of high-priced meats. 

The Loin is that portion lying between the rear edge 
of the back and the hams. It has no ribs below it other 
than the short, floating ribs of the lumbar vertebrae, and 
it consists largely of heavy muscles, which makes it cut 
some of the highest-priced meats. Especially should the 
muscling and fleshing of this part be the heaviest. The 



90 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



muscles of this part are used but little, which makes it 
tender. 

The Hams, above all else, should have the maximum 
of development. They should possess great length, 
depth and w^idth. The general v^idth of the body should 
continue into the hams. The depth should continue to 




The body of the fat hog is judged largely from the side 
view. Courtesy B. P. Folk of North Carolina. 

the hocks, giving a square appearance there instead of 
the usual cat-ham effect. By length w^e refer to the 
dimensions of the ham lengthwise of the hog's body. 
Especially is this likely to be deficient in the region of 
the flank. 

The Feet and Legs should be strong enough to main- 
tain the weight of the body; they should be placed 
squarely on the four corners of the hog's body, and 
should be straight and short. Fineness of bone and 
smoothness of joints are indicative of quality, while rough, 
heavy-boned legs and joints indicate a lack of quality. 
With hogs that have to graze and make their own living 



JUDGING SWINE 91 

there is a strong tendency for them to break down in the 
pastern joints under market weight. Strong, short, 
straight pasterns are, therefore, to be sought after. 

The Body shoukl be compact, low-set and broad, as 
this is indicative of a high dressing per cent. Especially 
is breadth desirable in the upper part of the body, for here 
the width is due to the development of muscles and to 
the deposit of fat on the ribs. The top line of the body 
should be slightly arched. The underline should be 
nearly straight, and certainly not excessively curved 
down. The side lines should be such that all points fill 
out smooth and plump to maintain straight lines all along 
the sides. The flanks should be well filled out. Paunchi- 
ness in particular should be guarded against. 

Quality in the fat hog. — Quality and refinement are 
synonymous. The ideal fat hog will show quality, both 
externally and internally. It is quality of pork that is 
sought after, and this cannot be obtained without exter- 
nal quality. In the first place, fineness of bone and indi- 
cations of a high dressing per cent accompany an animal 
possessing quality. The quality of the meat the hog 
carries is indicated by the quality of his bone, by a soft, 
pliable hide or skin, by the fineness of his bristles, and, 
above all, by his touch, or the correct feeling of flesh 
from an external examination. The correct touch is 
difiicult of description, but it should indicate an even, 
firm fleshing, with an ample admixture of fat and lean. 

Extreme quality undesirable. — Extreme quality and 
refinement are had only with the sacrifice of constitution 
and vigor. This condition is frequently met with in our 
highly bred hogs. The delicacy of make-up in such 



92 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

animals greatly reduces their breeding capacities. Es- 
pecially is size reduced. This condition has been pro- 
duced by the demand for early-maturing types. The 
tendency for such animals is to produce fat in abnormal 
quantities before they have matured their bodies. 
Quality is, of course, desirable in breeding animals, but 
we must be careful not to carry it to extremes. We want 
the maximum of quality so long as it is not obtained at 
the expense of constitutional vigor and size. 

Condition. — One of the most distinguishing character- 
istics of our present types and breeds of swine is the even 
and properly mixing of the fat with the lean. A certain 
amount of fat is most desirable, but an excess production 
of fat over lean is to be guarded against. Hogs in low 
condition have a firm, hard feeling along the back and lack 
in width. As fattening takes place they widen out and 
become more yielding to the touch. The degree or extent 
to which the market pork should be fattened will depend 
to some extent upon the market and to some extent upon 
the available foodstuff. In the fat hog condition and 
finish are synonymous. The same degree of condition is 
not sought in breeding hogs as in fat or market hogs. 

Fleshing. — We must make a distinction between condi- 
tion and fleshing. By condition we refer to the amount of 
fat the animal carries. By fleshing we refer to the amount 
of lean meat. The fleshing should be present in abun- 
dance and should be placed on smoothly. An evenly 
fleshed thin hog will fatten smoothly, while an unevenly 
fleshed thin animal seldom fattens so smoothly. The 
fleshing is generally indicated by a firm touch along the 
back, on the sides and on the hams. Heavy, smooth 



JUDGING SWINE 93 

fleshing is most desirable, for it indicates a profitable 
production and is desired by the consumer. 

Temperament of market hogs. — Temperament is indi- 
cated for the most part by the features of the head. In 
general, the nose should be short, with width between 
the ears and eyes, with a full, high forehead, indicative of 
a well-developed nervous system and strong vitality. 
The temperament of the younger and unfinished animals 
had best be of the more active sort, while of the finished 
and fattened animal it had best be of the passive and 
lymphatic order. A wide-open, clear, full eye is indica- 
tive of the desirable temperament, and a few glances at 
the head and eye will generally convey to one a fairly 
accurate measurement of the temperament. The temper- 
ament is also indicated by the carriage of the hog in 
walking or moving about. Excitable and nervous hogs 
are not desirable, for the quality of meat is apt to be 
affected. 

Style. — Style on a finished hog has a market value, but 
as a rule it is only in the show ring that it is taken into 
account. A stylish hog stands squarely on his feet, with 
a slight arch to his back, with his head in normal posi- 
tion, but with his eyes and ears ready to catch all that 
goes on. His style is also manifested in the manner in 
which he handles himself. Such a hog will attract buyers, 
for he forces his good points to the attention of the buyer. 

Constitution. — The hog, whether it be a breeding 
animal or pork maker, must have constitution and vitality 
to properly support the digestive and other bodily func- 
tionings. The internal organs must have ample room 
and full development, for they play an important part in 



94 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

the transfer and assimilation of nutrients and in the 
elimination of waste, and the proper exercise of their 
functions demands a vigorous and strong constitution. 
Constitution is of no consequence to the butcher, but it 
is the breeder and feeder that must take it into account. 
Especially in breeding swine is it of importance, for they 
must not only provide the needs of their own bodies, but 
also of their offspring. Constitution is indicated to a 
large extent by a deep, broad, full body and large heart 
girth. This allows of ample room for the functioning of 
the vital organs. The eyes should be full, bright and 
clear. The bones must not be too fine. 

Early maturity. — Early maturity refers to the ability of 
the animal to fatten sufficiently for marketing at an early 
age. It is the result of selection over many decades, and 
most of our improved breeds of swine possess the 
capacity to a marked degree. The tendency in breeding 
has been continually toward an earlier maturing type. 
Formerly hogs were not marketed until one year of age 
or over. Now they are sent to market at from six to nine 
months. Indications of early maturity are to be found 
largely in form and type. General refinement and com- 
pactness and ideal pork form are compatible with early 
maturity. Especially should the heart girth and chest 
development be ample. Extreme early maturity has a 
tendency to weaken the constitution. 

Character in unsexed swine. — Barrows and spayed 
sows should attain a certain development of character 
that is inexpressive of either sex. They should be neither 
masculine nor feminine. When unsexed the second- 
ary sexual development of either males or females tends 



JUDGING SWINE 95 

to approach the same condition. The castrated males 
become more effeminate and the spayed females more 
masculine. The ideal pork animal should have an inex- 
pressive character and resigned attitude suggestive that 
the only purpose for vv^hich it existed wsls the conversion 
of feed into pork. 

Stock hogs. — The selection of stock hogs demands 
greater skill than the judging of fat sw^ine. The judge of 
stock hogs must possess a conception of the animal after 
it has passed through a fattening process. He must not 
only pick the animals that w^ill finish into the ideal mar- 
ket type, but due consideration must be given to the 
economy of production. In other w^ords, he must be able 
to judge the fattening and gaining capacity of the animal. 
If one has a definite know^ledge of the ideal market hog, 
the selection of stock hogs and the production of the ideal 
market type is a less complicated matter. In the selec- 
tion of sw^ine for feeding purposes v^e should therefore 
look for indications of thrift and gaining capacity, a 
strong constitution, quality, breeding, and a disposition 
consistent v/ith the finishing of the animal into an ideal 
market animal. 

Judging breeding swine. — Basically, the judging of 
breeding sv^ine and market swine is identical in so far as 
conformation is concerned. With breeding swine, how- 
ever, some allowances must be made for condition, but 
with a lack of condition there must be indications of early 
maturity and ample feeding capacity. In breeding swine 
there are, in addition to the above, certain things directly 
related to breeding capacity which must be doubly 
emphasized. Constitutional vigor and sexuality are of 



96 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

greatest importance. In the judging of breeding swine 
the fact should ever be borne in mind that it is desired 
that the offspring of the swine being judged are to be 
made into perfect ideal fat hogs, and all the character- 




Large type breeding ^wille are popular in th? show ring. 
Courtesy Chas. J. Tanner of Kentucky. 

istics of the parents should contribute to this end. Con- 
sequently, special emphasis must be placed on size, con- 
formation, feet and legs, quality, sexuality and disposition. 

The foundation herd. — It is quite necessary that we 
have good individuals with which to start our b.'-eeding 
operations because of the inherent tendency of highly 
bred animals to revert to a poorer type. It is to be 
assumed that under all conditions only pure-bred toars 
will be used, and that pure-bred sows may or may not be 
used, depending on the ultimate objects sought. In either 



JUDGING SWINE 97 

case the same precautions must be taken in the selection 
of the breeding animals. One must not accept an animal 
for foundation stock simply because it bears a pedigree. 
In order not to select a scrub masquerading as a highly 
bred animal, he must know the true pork type, the ideal 
market animal. Even then his selections may go amiss, 
for the animals he selects may not breed true to type. 
Therefore, when possible, the beginner should use only 
young, tried animals, even though they may cost a trifle 
more. A little extra money is always w^ell spent in the 
purchasing of better foundation stock. 

Cost of breeding swine. — The cost of breeding swine 
seems almost prohibitive, and most of us are tempted to 
use scrub and unimproved animals with the hopes of 
improving them. This is not only true of the sows, but 
it is also frequently true of the boars. Most of us do not 
consider the increased value which a better boar puts on 
each of his pigs, which will very soon more than cover 
the small additional price. As a rule, a few extra dollars 
spent in better blood is well spent; but, of course, when 
one is spending the few extra dollars for better blood he 
wants to know that he is getting what is being paid for. 
One can only know this by becoming a good judge of 
breeding swine, which means that one must not only be 
able to recognize type, character and pork qualities in a 
breeding animal, but must be able to tell within a fair 
degree of accuracy the kind of offspring that will come 
from such an animal. 

Selecting breeding swine. — Since the ultimate use of 
breeding swine is the production of ideal porkers, their 
selections should be made with this in view. Quick 



98 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

maturity and evidences of profitableness should be given 
consideration. In order to be profitable they must of 
necessity be in possession of a vigorous constitution. 
They must possess breed characteristics and breediness, 
or sex character. In addition to a deep, natural flesh and 
compact form, they must be possessed of reproductive 
ability and be capable of producing their like. 

Purchasing breeders. — After the selection of the breed- 
ing herd from which it seems desirable to make some 
purchases, one should, if possible, visit the herd and 
carefully inspect the animals offered for sale, and find out 
w^hat he can of their type and ancestry. He should then 
make his selections, being guided by the purposes for 
v^hich the animals are desired, by individual preferences 
and by the information furnished by the breeder. An 
honest breeder w^ill not misrepresent his stock in order 
to make a sale. Under no circumstances should a slight 
difference in price influence the purchaser to buy inferior 
animals, for it has been demonstrated time and again that 
it pays to use only the best in starting a breeding herd of 
pure-bred sw^ine. 

How to make selections. — While v^^e can select for con- 
formation, type and early maturity, we must also base 
our selections on performance, or the ability to make 
good use of feed and rapid gains up to the limit of the 
capacity of the animal. In the case of sw^ine greater skill 
is required to select for performance than in the case of 
some other animals. In race horses, for instance, where 
all is sacrificed for speed, the matter of selection on the 
performance basis is a simple matter. With swine in the 
feed lot, the closest observation and the exercise of the 



JUDGING SWINE 99 

greatest skill are required. The show yards and sale rings 
assist some in the making of these selections, but for the 
most part the breeder will have to depend on his own 
observation and judgment. 

Age of breeding swine. — In the selecting and purchas- 
ing of swine for breeding purposes there are in the main 
two methods that can be employed so far as age is con- 
cerned. The first is to purchase young animals and grow 
them to maturity, and the other is to purchase older 
animals that have been used for breeding purposes. The 
first of these methods is frequently the most economical 
method of purchasing, but one's expectations are not 
always fulfilled, and the animals may not develop as they 
should. The second method has the advantage of being 
a little surer, which in the long run may be the best 
policy. In selecting older animals one must be careful 
to get breeding animals that have been merely tried out 
and have not been worn out through several seasons of 
breeding. The most profitable ages are between two and 
seven years for either sex. 

Mature breeding swine. — The reproductive functions 
of swine are not fully developed until about the time the 
individual begins to mature. The sexual organs and 
instinct develop rapidly as maturity approaches, and we 
say the breeding age has arrived. Gilts generally arrive 
at this age a month earlier than males. The age at which 
the breeding powers become manifested depends on 
breed, method of handling, feeding and sex. With the 
gilt the first period is co-existent with the bursting of 
the Graffian follicle and liberation of the first ova. With 
the male the arrival at breeding age is a more gradual 



100 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

process. By no means should swine be permitted to 
exercise their breeding powers as soon as they are mani- 
fested. Gilts should not be bred before they are eight 
months of age, for before that time they have not reached 
the age of sufficient sexual maturity, and the age of 
somatic maturity is not reached for some months after 
this age. Boars should likewise not be used to any extent 
before this age, and they should then be used only very 
lightly until after they are one year of age. 

Early maturity in breeding swine. — In the selection of 
our boars and sows the early-maturing qualities must be 
sought so that they can be transmitted to the offspring, 
for it is of the greatest importance from the standpoint 
of the grower and butcher that the hogs mature and 
fatten at the earliest possible age. Especially should 
boars be selected largely on the basis of their early 
fattening propensities. 

Conformation. — The conformation of breeding swine 
must therefore be similar to that of the ideal pork animal, 
and must give the indications of being able to produce 
the ideal market animal, either through feeding or 
through a process of reproduction and feeding. To be 
sure, the condition of breeding swine and the ideal mar- 
ket animal are different. In the conformation of the 
breeding swine, as compared with the ideal porker, there 
are other considerations. In the breeding animals sex 
character will cause variations in boars and sows that 
will not be found in the ideal market animal. The body 
of the sow will be longer, with a greater development in 
the hindquarters, and the boar will have a seemingly 
surplus development of the forequarters, head and neck. 



JUDGING SWINE 101 

Weights. — The tendency at present is towards market 
hogs of medium size. This preference is probably due 
to the facts that the meat is better and the cost of pro- 
ducing is less than in the large hogs. The production of 
the second hundred pounds in weight costs much more 
than the first hundred, and the cost increases with the 
size. The weights of swhie are dependent on so many 
factors that an approximation of average weights is diffi- 
cult. The age, feeding, sex, breeding, condition and 
quality influence the weight. The following table may 
be considered as average weights under different condi- 
tions of feeding and care. 

6 months 12 months 18 months 

1. Roughed 100 200 275 

2. Medimn fed 200 350 450 

3. Full fed 250 450 550 

4. Show fed 300 500 600 

A good standard for mature boars in breeding condi- 
tion is from 450 to 500 pounds, and for sows from 75 to 
100 pounds less than the boars. 

Variation in weight. — While we have certain standards 
of weight according to age, there are other factors, such 
as breed and sex, that play a part. The more common 
breeds will rank in size in about the following order, from 
the heavier to the lighter breeds : Large Yorkshire, 
Chester White, Duroc-Jersey, Tamworth, Poland-China, 
Berkshire, Hampshire, Middle Yorkshire, Essex, and 
Small Yorkshire. The boars generally weigh from one- 
sixth to one-quarter more than the sows. Swine are 
usually nearly mature at two years of age, although they 
will continue to grow some after that age. If slowly fed, 
they may take as much as four years in which to mature. 



102 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Condition of breeding swine. — High condition is in- 
compatible with the best results in breeding. In general, 
the breeding animals should possess an abundance of 
natural fleshing rather than high condition. Under no 
circumstances should they be excessively fat, nor should 
they be excessively lean. Show animals in show condi- 
tion are nearly always below par in breeding capacity. 
Especially is high condition to be guarded against in the 
sow, as an excess of internal fat is apt to result in crowd- 
ing these organs and shutting off the normal blood 
supply, preventing normal functioning. Also, high con- 
dition causes a lymphatic disposition, which is not con- 
ducive to the most desirable breeding qualities. Es- 
pecially is this true of boars, and they should never be 
fattened to the point where they become sluggish and 
inactive. 

Size and vigor. — In the selection of swine for breeding 
purposes size and vigor are vital points to be considered, 
as they largely control heavy and economical gains. 
Vigor is especially to be desired to conform to our 
grazing methods. Vigorous hogs are also less subject to 
parasites and diseases in general. As to size, what is 
wanted is not a large animal, but we do want a large 
one for its age, for this indicates early maturity and 
economical production. We can only have early- 
maturing animals when they have proper vigor and 
vitality. Thus, size and vigor are of importance from the 
standpoint of economical production, and these qualities 
must be taken into account in the selection of our breed- 
ing animals in the future if we are to secure hogs best 
suited to our conditions. 



JUDGING SWINE 103 

Importance of strong bone. — In our judging and selec- 
tion of breeding swine greater attention will have to be 
given to strength and quality of bone than has been given 
in the past. This comes from a changed method of pro- 
duction, in which we will no longer do extensive lot 
feeding, but will produce our pork by means of grazing 
crops. It is not so much a great size of bone that is 
desired as moderate size with quality. Too much size 
without quality would not be desirable from the stand- 
point of the butcher. A strong bone is wanted to support 
the weight of the animal in the larger amount of walking 
that will have to be done in the gathering of its food 
supply. 

Vitality and prolificacy. — In a herd of breeding swine 
vitality and prolificacy are of considerable importance, 
and on them to a large extent depends the outcome. 
Care and attention are continually required to maintain 
the required vitality and prolificacy, and under the condi- 
tions with which we surround most of our pure-bred 
herds there is a strong tendency toward over-refinement. 
This lack of vitality and prolificacy is not so noticeable 
in the body form as in the weakened breeding powers 
manifested. In the sows, with a lack of these qualities 
v^e have irregular and abortive breeders, lessened fe- 
cundity, and low milk secretion. These weaknesses seem 
to accentuate themselves as they go from one generation 
to the next, but fortunately they are ultimately auto- 
matically eliminated. 

Breed type. — All our breeding swine should possess 
some breed type, whether the object is pork production 
or the production of breeding animals. By breed type we 



104 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

refer to the indications that the individual belongs to a 
specific breed, or, that the blood of a specific breed pre- 
dominates. The possession of this breed type is a good 
indication of prepotency. Any pork animal should 
possess these indications for at least one of the improved 
breeds; otherwise, it may safely be assumed that a poor 
pork type exists, for a good pork type seldom exists 
v^ithout breed type. Especially should breeding swine be 
typical and characteristic as to breed type. 

Prepotency. — Prepotency refers to the ability of 
breeding animals to impress their own likeness upon 
their offspring. While it is not definitely recognizable 
from the appearance, it should be one of the distinctive 
characteristics of good breeding animals. An animal 
with proper sexual development, breed type and breeding 
is very apt to be prepotent. When two animals are 
crossed, the one that impresses its kind more strongly on 
the offspring is said to be more prepotent. Prepotency 
is one of the bases of our progress in improvement in 
swine breeding. Breeding animals that are not prepotent 
are said to be impotent, or, in other words, they are not 
able to stamp their type. 

Quality in breeding swine. — Good quality is especially 
evidenced by ability to make good use of feed. Other 
indications of quality are to be found in the bone, bristle 
and hide. Usually the hog of good quality makes a good 
appearance, and by his smooth skin, bright eye and gen- 
eral disposition makes a good impression. In addition to 
being masculine, our breeding boars should possess a 
certain degree of quality. His features should be clear 
cut and symmetrical, showing strength and character 



JUDGING SWINE 105 

without coarseness. The breed characteristics should be 
pronounced. The sow likewise should be more than 
effeminate. She should be in possession of the quality 
that is necessary in the make-up of a perfect brood sow. 
She should show general refinement and symmetrical 
and clear-cut features, combined with proper breed 
characteristics. Quality and breed character go hand in 
hand. 



CHAPTER V 

SHOWING SWINE 

The show ring. — There is probably no other single 
institution connected with the swine industry that has 
made for more real progress than the show ring. With- 
out it our present day swine would have presented noth- 
ing like the uniformity of type and general perfection 
which they now possess. The show ring has been the 
guiding star for the breeders of pure-bred swine and to 
the producers of market swine to a less degree. The 
producer of market hogs can get much from the market 
as to the demands and standards of the times, but the 
breeder of pure-bred swine must rely on the show ring. 
It has been the show rings that have made the standards 
of perfection toward which we have been striving. They 
tended to standardize and systematize the goal of per- 
fection toward which all breeders have been striving, 
which has been largely responsible for the progress that 
has been attained. The show ring has given the indi- 
vidual breeders an insight into what the best swine 
judges have considered the ideal types. In addition, the 
friendly rivalry of the show ring has been a great stimulus 
in bringing about the production of continually better 
individuals. The sporting instinct of man has been 
aroused by the competition in the show ring. All in all, 
the show ring has been a wonderful stimulus for the good 
of swine breeding, and it is to be hoped that more and 
more of the small breeders can utilize this institution in 
the interests of their work. 

106 



SHOWING SWINE 107 

Advertising. — One of the chief advantages to be 
derived from the showing of swine is the advertising that 
is secured. If the breeder properly fits and shows his 
products, he will have no difficulty in placing his animals 
before the public in a way that will be a credit to himself 
and the herd. The great advantage of this method of 
advertising is that if we are breeding swine of sufficient 
merit to win they receive a stamp of approval from the 
judge. This is one of the cheapest ways we have to do 







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Mississippi State Fair Grand Champiun sows uf 1915, owned 
by E. J. McCall of Louisiana. 

our advertising, for when the animals really possess merit 
the winnings or prize money will more than offset the 
expenses attached to the showing. In the past the value 
of the live stock show as an advertising method has not 
been recognized as fully as it deserved. If animals really 
possess merit, they always sell for more if they have 
winnings back of them, and nothing adds to the value of 
an animal any quicker than to have won over hot compe- 
tition at one of the better live stock shows. 

Reputation. — One's reputation as a breeder depends to 
a large extent upon the show ring winnings he has made 
with animals of his own breeding. This is one of the 



108 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

chief advantages to be derived by the sw^ine breeder from 
the show^ ring. Aside from the advertising v^hich his 
herd and animals receive, his reputation as a breeder is 
at stake, as it w^ere, and the show ring offers an oppor- 
tunity w^hich cannot well be ignored by one who wishes 
to make his reputation as a breeder of the most approved 
types. A reputation built on attainments in the show 
ring is a lasting one if attained honestly. It has an 
immense monetary value to the swine breeder if properly 
utilized. 

Educational value of the show. — In addition to the 
reputation and advertising to be gained by showing the 
products of one's efforts at breeding, there are other 
advantages to be derived. One's general store of knowl- 
edge is added to along the line of swine breeding, be- 
cause he cannot associate with other breeders without 
absorbing valuable information from them. He sees 
what others are doing, and he is thereby enabled to con- 
duct his own operations more advantageously. This 
educational feature of the show ring is one of the most 
important ; it lights the way, so to speak ; standards are 
set ; friendly rivalries stimulate one to greater accom- 
plishments, and one becomes educated as to what is 
expected of a swine breeder and as to how best go about 
the production of an ideal. 

Show ring standards. — The question sometimes arises 
in the show ring as to where we are to go to secure our 
standards in making awards. It is very obvious that 
since we are producing something to meet the discrimi- 
nating demands of the market, we should go there to 
seek our standards. That has been one great difficulty 



SHOWING SWINE 109 

we have had in the past. We have failed in a great many- 
instances to secure judges who were familiar with the 
demands of the markets for which they were making 
awards. The judge should be absolutely familiar with 
what the market demands and is willing to pay the most 
for. The markets are constantly changing in what they 
demand, because the pork-producing industry is evo- 
luting. The evoluting process is slow because our herds 
cannot be changed on short order. If we are to make 
progress in breeding, we must depend on the awards of 
judges to show what the market demands, and thus the 
responsibility resting on a judge in the show ring is much 
greater than we might consider on first thought. 

The profitable type. — The hogs that are fitted for show 
are not necessarily the ideal farm type. They usually 
carry such an excess of fat as to preclude profits from 
their production. They do show, however, the type that 
is desired, for they could never attain the condition they 
carry were they not of the proper type. Therefore, we 
may with safety depend on the show ring to indicate the 
most desirable types for farm use. Especially does the 
show ring point out to us those types which fatten most 
readily and mature at an early age. In farm practice the 
hogs we grow for the market must be able to develop and 
grow rapidly from the start and be susceptible to fatten- 
ing at almost any age. 

Important shows. — There are numerous swine shows 
held over the South, and some of them rank well with the 
shows held farther north in what has been considered the 
swine belt proper. Of course, the better the show which 
one attends, or at which one shows, the greater are to be 



110 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

the rewards in case of winning. Some county and local 
fairs offer small premiums, and where the interest and 
competition are sufficient a great deal of good can be 
derived from showing at and attending these local fairs. 
The state fairs are, however, better in that they cover a 
broader field and give one more of a real insight into the 
use and value of the show ring. Every southern state has 
its state fairs, and some have more than one. In addition 
to these state fairs there are other fairs of a wider scope, 
such as the Feeders' and Breeders' Show, which is held 
at Fort Worth, Tex. ; the Southeastern Fair that is held 
in Atlanta, Ga.; the Tri-State Fair, held at Memphis, 
Tenn. ; the Alabama-Mississippi Fair, held at Birming- 
ham; and similar fairs that offer exceptional oppor- 
tunities for southern breeders to obtain the advantages 
to be derived from use of the show ring ; and all breeders 
should attend one or more of the best of these shows, 
whether they show or not. 

Making entries. — In order that one may show an 
animal in one of the better classes of shows it is generally 
necessary that entry blanks of the proper sort be filled 
out. These blanks are usually furnished free by the sec- 
retary of the fair association. On them is a place for the 
name of the animal, its date of birth, breed, registration 
number, the class in which it is desired to show it, and 
other spaces to supply whatever other information is 
needed. In the entering of animals it is generally 
possible to enter them in several competitions. When an 
animal really possesses merit and stands a chance of 
winning in more than one class, it is best to make the 
entry that way where permissible. Prize money some- 
times comes easier than it looks, and with good indi- 



SHOWING SWINE 111 

viduals and where the competition is not too great, one 
can reasonably expect the prize money to pay the ex- 
penses incidental to fitting and showing. Some breeders 
esteem the show ring so greatly that they will have out 
as many as three or four herds, that will remain out an 
entire season, going from one fair to another. In the 
making of entries one will be guided to a great extent by 
the particular show, for each makes its own rules govern- 
ing exhibits. As a rule, the classification made to cover 
the different classes that will be shown is arbitrary, but 
a complete classification for the showing is given as 
follows. There are but few of the fairs that have all of 
these classes. 

SHOW CLASSES 

Boars Sows Herds 

Aged boars Aged sows Aged herds 

Senior yearlings Senior yearlings Bred by exhibitor 

Junior yearlings Junior yearhngs Owned by exhibitor 

Senior boar pigs Senior sow pigs Young herds 

Junior boar pigs Junior sow pigs Produce of sow 

Senior Grand Senior Grand Get of boar 

Champion _ Champion Litters (4) 

Junior Champion Junior Champion 

Fitting for the show. — In the fitting of swine for the 
show there is an opportunity for the exercise of great 
skill. It is well recognized that in order to properly fit 
swine both skill and experience are necessary. Above 
all, the feeding must be begun in time. The feeds must 
not only be of the right sort for the purposes desired, but 
the animal w^ill require continual watching from start to 
finish. The feeding must be systematic and judgment 
must be used. In order to feed properly one must not 
only have the animals to feed, but he must be supplied 
with the right sort of feeds and have the right sort of 



112 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

equipment, in the way of lots, pens, troughs, sheds, etc. 
The whole thing resolves itself into the proper feeding 
and handling of the animal so that it will make use of 
feed up to the limit of its capacity. In the fitting for the 
show more is required than to merely attain a certain 
condition. The hair, skin, feet, disposition and form will 
have to be carefully watched. To fit swine properly for 
the show is no simple matter and is one at which great 
skill can be exercised. 

Equipment for show fitting. — Not much equipment is 
required in fitting swine for show purposes above that 
which is ordinarily to be had on a hog farm. First, it is 
necessary to have pigs or hogs of breeding sufficient to 
make it possible for them to be developed into prize 
winners. Next, which is equally important, is the supply 
of the proper kind of feeds. The kind will depend on the 
kind of hogs to be fed and the length of time the feeding 
is to take place. After that, some shelter or shed space 
will have to be available, for show hogs cannot be run in 
the sunshine and weather to any great extent, as it injures 
the hair and skin. Also, proper exercising pens or pad- 
docks must be available, these preferably to be sown to 
grazing crops. In addition to this, a place for washing 
the hogs, oils, brushes, soaps, straw, crates, troughs, and 
the like will have to be provided. As stated, most of 
these can be had on the average farm, and what little 
extra is required for proper fitting will more than repay 
for itself. 

Feeding for the show. — It is necessary to feed liberally 
and judiciously when feeding for show purposes. The 
use of foodstuffs conducive to an excessive production of 



114 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

fat should be avoided, since such feeding is apt to result 
in an abnormal development of fat tissue in comparison 
with the lean. The distribution of fat and lean in the 
carcass can be influenced to a limited extent by the 
method of feeding. Proper covering and firmness of 
flesh are most desirable. Unnecessary expenses should be 
avoided. Vermifuges, tonics and appetizers may be used 
to advantage. The feeding of sugar, molasses, and starch 
is an expensive procedure that is seldom justifiable. The 
cooking of feeds is also of questionable value. The em- 
ployment of some of these and similar methods is some- 
times justifiable. Of course, in show fitting one is not 
justified in figuring too closely on costs of gains, and 
especially in the case of breeding swine when very high 
prices may obtain. Linseed meal is a food that we are 
justified in using in the South in show fitting only. It is 
very rich in protein and generally contains considerable 
oil, which is supposed to have a very beneficial influence 
on the skin and bristle. 

Greater skill is required in the proper fitting of breed- 
ing swine than fat or market swine. In the fitting of 
breeding swine considerable exercise must be allowed. 
The all-important thing is to attain the proper condition 
for winning in the competition without injuring the 
breeding qualities. In the fitting of market hogs or fat 
hogs conformation and condition, combined with the 
right quality, are all essential. In the case of either class 
of swine, it must ever be borne in mind that after a hog 
is once fitted for the show he must not be allowed to 
decline in condition, for with a decline in condition a 
certain coarseness of fleshing and bone is brought about 
that can never be overcome by the most judicious feeding. 



SHOWING SWINE 115 

Over-fitting for showing. — Swine that have been fitted 
io> the shows are nearly always too fat to have been pro- 
duced at a profit. For this reason the show-yard 
ijtandards and the commercial standards are not exactly 
in accord. The quantity and quality of fat usually de- 
manded in the show ring are not only too great to have 
been produced at a profit, but the show hog is generally 
in too high a condition to suit the average consumer of 
pork. In this respect the show yards are inclined to set 
the wrong example for the grower. Of course, in fitting 
for the show the matter of cost is secondary, yet if our 
shows are to serve the purposes they should, more em- 
phasis will have to be placed on whether or not an 
animal has been profitably produced by its owner, and we 
shall depend less on the old show standards that have 
had their origins in conditions different from what exist 
today in the southern states. 

The proper finish. — The proper degree to which to fit 
show animals will depend on several factors. Different 
judges have different standards, there are different 
standards for the different classes, the amount of natural 
fleshing is a factor, the degree of hardness of the fat is 
another factor, and the competition that one has to meet 
is still another. Showmen make a practice of obtaining 
information in advance, where possible, of the fitness and 
merits of the animals against which they will have to 
show. This is not a bad practice. The proper condition 
to which to finish is difficult to describe. If a market hog, 
the animal must be finished, yet he must not be overly 
fat and soft. Breeding animals do not require the condi- 
tion that is demanded of the fat classes. Under no cir- 
cumstances must the animals be too soft, and never so fat 



116 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

as to be wrinkled. What is desired is a smooth finish in 
which there is a firmness, indicative of plenty of lean 
meat. To obtain the desired firmness such feeds as corn 
and cottonseed meal can be fed to harden the fat. In the 
breedirhg-'-c}a^ses4t-is an easy matter to have the animals 
too fat. The exact condition and fleshing qualities re- 
quired can only be learned by experience. 

Different treatment for different ages. — It must be 
borne in mind that pigs of different ages will require 
different feed and attention to be properly fitted. Pigs 
will require greater attention and care than the older 
animals. The feeds of the pigs should be more of a 
nitrogenous nature, and especially should it have bulk. 
Pigs can be expected to make better use of certain 
leguminous pastures than the older hogs. They should 
be fed only a comparatively small amount of corn and 
such carbonaceous feeds, and greater quantities of skim 
milk, shorts, and nitrogenous feeds, especially legumes. 
More corn and other fattening feeds can be fed to older 
hogs. They are less apt to get out of condition than the 
pigs. The pigs will usually take sufficient exercise of 
their own accord, but older animals have to be encour- 
aged to take exercise. All of these natural tendencies 
exhibited by swine of different ages should be studied and 
utilized in show fitting. 

Securing width. — In the fitting of swine for competition 
in the fat or market classes some difficulty is generally 
experienced in securing the width that is desired to give 
the compact and blocky conformation. No two things 
make more for securing the desired width than breeding 
of the proper sort and ample food supply from birth. 



SHOWING SWINE 117 

The use of bulky feeds during the early life of the pig is 
especially desirable, since it tends to produce and stimu- 
late growth and general development without excess 
fattening. Bulky feeds enlarge the digestive organs and 
promote digestive activities in general. A full stomach 
and intestines in the show ring does a great deal toward 
giving the blocky appearance demanded. 

Securing proper hair condition. — In order to show to 
the best advantage, swine intended for show purposes 
must have a smooth, lustrous coat of hair or bristles. In 
order to have a good hair coat the animal must be in the 
best of health, for when an animal gets off feed or in poor 
physical condition one of the first places that it shows up 
is in the hair coat and skin. Show fitters resort to several 
means to secure the condition of hair and skin required. 
On black hogs lamp black and oils are used to some 
extent. Rubbing and washing tend to give the coat a 
luster, and the use of oil dressings of several sorts is re- 
sorted to. Frequent washing with soap and water will 
keep the hogs cool and comfortable and tends to promote 
hair growth and condition. To obtain the proper condi- 
tion of the hair and skin is no small matter, yet if one is 
to show and win in strong competition, we are compelled 
to resort to such impractical methods in self-defense. 

General care previous to showing. — After the proper 
condition and weight has been secured to fit the hogs for 
the ring, care must be continually exercised to see that 
they maintain themselves, or even improve, until they 
come under the eyes of the judge. One of the main things 
to watch is to see that they take ample exercise. They 
should be encouraged to take this in the cool of the day. 



118 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



There are several ways in which they can be induced to 
take exercise, but in doing it care must be taken not to 
unduly disturb and excite them. In addition to the exer- 
cise, the feet must be properly looked after. They may 




Personal attention is essential in show fitting. Courtesy 
S. H. Pedrick of Georgia. 

need trimming. They should be trimmed if necessary, 
and sometimes they are sandpapered and polished with 
emery dust and oil. The hair coat and skin must not be 
permitted to become rough. Above all, the individuals 
should be trained so that they will not be wild and excit- 
able, but so that they can be easily handled. Many 
animals of merit have failed in the show ring because they 
were not sufficiently docile to be judged properly. Fre- 
quent handling and rubbing will make them tame and fit 



SHOWING SWINE 119 

them so that they can be shown to the best advantage 
when they enter the ring. 

Equipment for showing. — After the animals have been 
fitted and the time arrives to take them to the place of 
showing, there is a certain amount of equipment required 
in order to carry out the program. First, one needs feeds 
for the hogs, unless these are supplied by the show asso- 
ciation. If taken, the feeds are best taken already mixed 
in sacks. In addition, some buckets for watering and 
slopping and some feed troughs will be required. In 
addition to some crates, some small hurdles will be found 
useful in handling the hogs. Other accessories, such as 
bedding, brushes, oil, possibly lamp black or other pig- 
ments, hammer, nails, lantern, kerosene can, medicines, 
etc., will be required. In addition to these items, it is 
generally customary for the herdsman that attends the 
hogs to sleep in their vicinity, which calls for a cot and 
some bedding. A large trunk or two is usually provided, 
in which to keep the small items that are necessary. All 
of these things should be provided for. If one expects to 
attend the shows and show, it does not pay to go half 
prepared, and it takes preparation in other than properly 
finished hogs to show and win against the hot competi- 
tion one finds at the better shows. 

Transportation. — After the hogs are finished and all of 
the herdsman's outfit is prepared, the question of trans- 
portation is to be solved. It is generally necessary to 
make use of the railroads, for but few breeders live close 
enough to the shows to haul by wagon or truck. As to 
whether the hogs will be driven or hauled to the car will 
depend on local conditions. In some instances, where 



120 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

the switch is on the farm, or close to it, it may not be 
necessary to haul. Otherwise, if the distance is too 
great, the hogs will have to be hauled to the car. The 
ordinary box car is the most frequently used type of car 
in transporting the show herd. Other types are some- 
times made use of, however. Usually pens have to be 
constructed in the car. These will have to be bedded. 
Arrangements must be made for feeding and watering 
en route. The attendant and his feeds and outfit are 
usually placed on a platform over the pens, especially if 
the car is crowded. If only a part of the car is occupied 
with the hogs, the other part may be utilized by the 
herdsman and to store feed, bedding and other equip- 
ment. Upon arrival at the show yards the hogs should 
be removed to the assigned pens as soon as possible. 
Preparations should then be made at once to prepare the 
animals for the show ring. 

Proper showing. — Many animals of superior merit have 
lost in the show ring because of improper showing. The 
competition is such in our better shows today that every 
advantage counts for something. In many cases proper 
showing has won the blue ribbon, even though a better 
animal was competing. The herdsman or showman must 
know and appreciate the particular merits of his entry, 
and exhibit them to the judge to the best advantage 
possible. The herdsman should study the judge and learn 
his strong and weak points and play to them. In the 
present day of large entries and keen competition, show- 
ing is largely a game, and while individual merit counts, 
proper showing also frequently lands the blue or purple 
ribbon. 



CHAPTER VI 

FEEDING SWINE 

The South can grow pork. — The South can never com- 
pete with the Corn Belt sections of the North and West 
in the fattening of pork on corn. By the extensive use of 
grazing crops we can grow pork of a desirable quality, 
however, at figures which cannot be equaled under Corn 
Belt conditions. We should aim to make our hogs only 
so fat as to make the carcass juicy, palatable and tender. 
Any fat above this is produced at a loss, for so far as we 
know eight or ten times the weight of food required to 
produce a pound of lean is required in the production of 
a pound of fat. If we must have an extra quantity of lard 
or fat, we can best afford to import it from the Corn Belt, 
or, better still, make a more extensive use of our own 
vegetable fat, cottonseed oil. 

The size of native swine. — The smallness of our native 
unimproved swine, especially of those farther South, is 
due to the animals not having had a constant and suffi- 
cient amount of nutritious food. They are not kept in a 
healthy and growing condition from the time they are 
weaned until ready for slaughter. Inbreeding and breed- 
ing at too young an age may have reduced the size more, 
but for the most part the inadequate food supply during 
winter and early spring has been the chief contributing 
factor. When ample food is supplied a much larger 
animal will be produced from this native stock, and the 
animal will be ready for slaughter at a much earlier age 
than when raised in the usual manner. 

121 



122 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Our carbohydrate supply. — For many years our investi- 
gators in feeding and nutrition have realized that the 
deficiency of feeding nutrients in the South w^as not pro- 
tein, but was in carbohydrates. This is the reverse of 
the condition in the Corn Belt, w^here corn supplies an 
abundance of carbohydrates and where proteins are 
naturally scarce. Fortunately, an adequate protein 
supply is more important than an adequate carbohydrate 
supply, so that while we have a problem, it cannot be 
considered with the same gravity as the protein supply of 
the Corn Belt. We must not feed too narrow a ration 
and must feed some carbohydrates. Corn will supply 
some. Sweet potatoes, chufas, molasses, saccharine and 
non-saccharine sorghums will supply some, and, in addi- 
tion, legumes and all other feeds contain appreciable 
quantities of carbohydrates. 

Too much corn not profitable. — In those sections of the 
South where corn can be grown to advantage, a mistake 
has been often made of feeding a ration to hogs restricted 
almost entirely to corn. Corn has always been considered 
a valuable feed for swine, and so it is, but we too often 
fail to realize that to obtain the maximum value from it, 
it must be properly supplemented. As many as a dozen 
experiments have been tried at the several experiment 
stations in testing the value of corn alone and with corn 
supplemented. All have agreed that a ration of corn 
alone was not profitable and that production was obtained 
at a greatly reduced figure by properly supplementing the 
corn with a food rich in nitrogen and mineral matter. In 
several instances, notably at the Kansas Station, the pigs 
died on rations of corn alone. The supplements that were 
found most valuable were the legumes, and by their use, 



FEEDING SWINE 



123 



both of the seed and green pastures, a reduction of from 
ten to fifty per cent and more was obtained in the cost per 
100 pounds of gain. 

The use of grazing crops. — Pork production can be put 
on an absolutely permanent basis in the South by every 
farmer who will take up seriously the matter of growing 
forage crops so as to supply an abundance of roughage 
for his swine the year through. Every successful hog 
man knows that the greatest profits in pork production 
have come from the liberal and judicious use of forage 



Hi 


1 






# .^^w 


f'i 




>f 
















■'1 



Most grazing crops should be supplemented. 
Hardin of Tennessee. 



Courtesy D. T. 



crops. By the use of forage crops swine can be grown 
and maintained with but very little concentrates. For 
the proper finishing of pork for the market some concen- 



124 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

trates will have to be used, but it is also possible to grow 
these at low cost, and they can, for the most part, be 
harvested by the hogs themselves. We can have forage 
crops every day in the year for our hogs if we plan far 
enough ahead. 

Rotations. — After one has decided upon the crops that 
can be grown under his conditions, the more important 
problem of arranging for a rotation or succession enters 
in. There are no rotations that are applicable all over 
the South, a specific one being required for each section 
and farm. In order to show how they are planned, some 
typical ones are presented. Of course, it will be necessary 
to have several fields in order to properly graze swine. 
As a general proposition, the more fields and the greater 
variety of crops grown the better. It is possible to pro- 
vide grazing pretty well through the year and feed hogs 
in a limited way with three fields on a three-year rotation. 
Such a rotation might be planned about as follows : 
Grazing from Jan. 1 to Jan. 1 

Order Approximate order 

planted grazed (months) 

Field 1 — Winter grains plus winter legume Mar., June 

Summer legume plus corn Sept., Oct. 

Field 2 — Winter grains plus winter legume May, July 

Sweet potatoes plus peanuts Nov., Dec. 

Field 3— Rape plus oats Jan., Feb., Apr., May 

Early corn plus legume Aug. 

A four-field rotation could be made from the above by 
the addition of a field of alfalfa. A permanent grass 
pasture, such as Bermuda or blue grass, would also work 
in well with the above grazing plan, but it should not be 
rotated. An ideal five-field system would include the 
above three-field plan, with one field additional for al- 



FEEDING SWINE 125 

falfa and one additional permanent pasture, which could 
be grazed off as needed. 

In order to show about how the succession would run 
on a four-field rotation, the following is presented : 

A Four-Field Rotation to Supply Grazing from July 1 to July 1 

Order Approximate 
planted grazing dates 
Field 1 — Early corn plus New Era peas July- 
Rape plus oats Nov., Apr. 

Field 2 — Sweet potatoes and peanuts Sept., Oct. 

Winter grain plus winter legumes Dec, May 

Field 3 — Corn plus soy beans or cowpeas Aug. 

Winter grain plus winter legumes Jan., June 

Field 4 — Chufas and bur clover Feb., Mar. 

As pointed out in the case of the three-year rotation, 
this could be made a five or six-field plan by the addition 
of either alfalfa or a permanent grass pasture, or both. 

In order to facilitate the planning of the right rotations 
and to assist in the selection of the most suitable crops, 
the following table is offered, which shows the most 
suitable crops for grazing for each month of the year 
under average southern conditions. The average planting 
date is also given. The number of hogs that an acre of 
the crops will carry is not given, for the reason that they 
will vary within such wide limits, varying in the length of 
time the grazing is to take place, upon the stage of 
growth, the fertility of the soil, the season, climate, and 
many other factors. 

To supply Suitable crops Planting date 

grazing in 

January Rape Sept 1 

Rye and vetch Sept. 1 

Bur clover July 

Oats Sept. 

Chufas May 



126 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



To supply Suitable crops Planting date 

grazing in 

February Rape Sept. 

Rye and vetch Sept. 

Oats Sept. 

Bur clover Sept. 

Crimson clover Sept. 15 

Chufas May 

March Rape Sept. 

Rye and vetch Sept. 

Bur clover Sept. 

Oats Oct. 1 

Alfalfa A previous year 

Chufas May 

Corn, grain 

April Rape Oct. 1 

Rye and vetch Sept. 

Oats Oct. 1 

Crimson clover Sept. 30 

Alfalfa A previous year 

Corn, grain 

May Alfalfa A previous year 

Oats Oct. 1 

Crimson clover Oct. 1 

Rye and vetch Sept. 15 

Rape Feb. 1 

Corn, grain 

June Alfalfa A previous year 

Oats Mar. 1 

Rape Feb. 1 

New Era peas Apr. 15 

Bermuda Permanent 

July Alfalfa A previous year 

New Era peas Apr. 25 

Early corn Apr. 1 

Bermuda Permanent 

Early soy beans May 1 

August Cowpeas May 20 

Soy beans May 10 

Alfalfa A previous year 

Field corn __Apr. 1 

Bermuda Permanent 

September Cowpeas June 1 

Soy beans June 1 

Corn May 20 

Bermuda Permanent 

Sweet potatoes Jime 1 

Peanuts ,===^„ Jrne 1-10 



FEEDING SWINE 127 

To supply Suitable crops Planting date 

grazing in 

October Corn June 1-15 

Sweet potatoes June 1-15 

Cowpeas July 1 

Bermuda Permanent 

Peanuts June 1-10 

November Sweet potatoes June 1-10 

Rye Sept. 1-10 

Rape Sept. 1-10 

Peanuts June 1-15 

December Rape Sept. 1 

Rye and vetch Sept. 1 

Chufas May 1 

Oats Sept. 1 

Perennial grazing crops. — By perennial grazing crops 
we refer to those crops that we plant once and then they 
reseed themselves. There are a number of true peren- 
nials that have value as grazing crops. Among these 
alfalfa is by far the most important. In addition to this 
there are several grasses that are perennial. Also, there 
are several plants that are not perennial, but they re- 
semble perennial plants in that they reseed themselves. 
Among such plants is bur clover. The chief value in 
perennials is that they require less work in reseedirg each 
year. A permanent pasture, such as Bermuda, is not 
difficult to obtain, and it is a sure crop. Usually peren- 
nials make a surer crop than the annuals, but will not 
yield quite so heavily. 

Annual grazing crops. — Most of the swine-grazing 
crops in use are annuals. They have their chief value in 
that two crops can be planted and harvested in the same 
field in a season. Most hog-grazing crops are either 
planted in the early spring or early fall. It is almost 
impossible to arrange a system of crop rotation suitable 
for hog grazing without the annuals. Among^ them are 



128 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

such valuable crops as corn, sweet potatoes, peanuts, 
chufas, the small grains, and a number of clovers and 
grasses, without which we could not profitably graze 
swine. 

Leguminous forage crops. — One of the greatest oppor- 
tunities offered by a system of swine production is that 
means are provided whereby the fertility of the soil can 
be not only maintained, but very rapidly added to. This 
would result from the use of leguminous forage crops, 
which are both valuable as a feed and for the fixing of 
nitrogen in the soil. The South is extremely fortunate 
in that practically all legumes do well. Cowpeas, soy 
beans, vetches, velvet beans, peanuts, clovers and alfalfa 
all thrive in most places. Legumes, as a rule, not only 
possess greater feed value than non-legumes, but the 
residual effect on the soil is an added advantage which 
our farmers have failed to take proper advantage of as yet. 

Available feeds. — Of necessity, forage crops must play 
a most important role in any extensive system of swine 
feeding that may be developed in the southern states. 
We can secure and properly manage swine with which 
to grow pork, but the greatest problem is and always 
will be that of adequate food supply. What the hog 
grower wants to know is, How can he economically pro- 
vide the feed to grow and fatten swine and be assured of 
profits from his undertaking? It can be done and is 
being done in many places. It is never done without 
considerable effort and planning. A careful study of the 
characteristics of the different feeds and their values will 
assist the swine grower in providing the proper feeds for 
his swine. 



FEEDING SWINE 129 

Space is given only to the more important swine feeds, 
and while there are many others, a few of which are 
enumerated, it will generally be found advisable for the 
feeder to restrict himself to those feeds described more in 
detail, for their value has been proven. In the making 
of these discussions and calculations, authoritative works 
have been freely consulted, and in most instances credit 
is given. In other instances, where several authors have 
concurred on a special point, the references have been 
omitted for obvious reasons. 

Corn. — A description of the grain or seed of this 
standard American cereal is unnecessary. It is one of 
the most valuable carbohydrate feeds we have, contain- 
ing about 68 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and 5 
pounds of digestible fat per hundred pounds of grain. 
In the same amount there are only about 7 pounds of 
digestible protein, which shows that it is deficient in 
protein. It has a nutritive ratio of approximately 1 : 11.3. 
The weakness of corn thus lies in its small amount of 
protein. Also, research work has shown that the pro- 
tein that is supplied by corn is not of the best quality. In 
addition, corn is deficient in mineral matter. These two 
deficiencies show the great necessity for properly supple- 
menting a corn ration. Its composition suggests the 
value of corn in supplementing pastures rich in protein, 
such as peanut, rape, broom or rescue grass, alfalfa, 
vetch, velvet bean and bur clover. Practically every 
system of grazing crops for swine should contain corn. 
It is generally planted from March to May, or as soon as 
all dangers of frost are over. Yields vary greatly, al- 
though the average is low in the South. It is a feed that 
is available almost over the entire South and at all 



130 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

seasons of the year, which makes it a most valuable 
source of food supply. 

Sweet potato pasture. — This is a summer-growing 
tuberous root of the utmost importance to the South so 
far as hog feeding is concerned. It is adapted to practi- 
cally every section, but generally does best on light, 
sandy soils, where yields of 200 bushels to the acre are 
often obtained. It is a highly carbonaceous feed, having 
a nutritive ratio of about 1 : 25, containing per 100 pounds 
of potatoes about 25 pounds of digestible carbohydrate, 
.3 pounds of digestible fats and 1 pound of digestible pro- 
tein. In feeding value it is equal to one-third the 
quantity of corn, which is remarkably high, considering 
its succulence. It is generally planted in May or June, 
and where intended for hog feed is never harvested ex- 
cept by the hogs. The grazing-off season generally runs 
from August to after frost in October. Owing to its 
highly carbonaceous character, it is admirably adapted 
for feeding in connection with legumes with ripe seeds, 
such as mature peanuts, velvet beans, soy beans, cow- 
peas, etc. This is a feed of proven worth that should be 
in every system of swine grazing that may be adopted, 
unless for certain reasons it will not grow well. 

Peanut pasture. — This is a summer legume of proven 
worth, as indicated by the fact that already thousands 
upon thousands of hogs are annually fed upon this 
standard southern swine feed. Th^re are two types that 
are commonly grown, the Spanish and common. The 
Spanish is smaller, but where it has been tried it has 
generally proven more valuable. Yields of two or three 
tons per acre have been secured, which indicates how 



FEEDING SWINE 131 

cheaply the feed is produced. They do best on light, 
sandy soils. They go by the name of "pindars" in south 
Georgia and Florida, and in other sections they are re- 
ferred to as goobers. While the usual practice is not to 
put the hogs into the fields until the nuts are mature, it 
is sometimes done. The stage at which they are pas- 
tured has much to do with their feeding value. One hun- 
dred pounds of the material eaten by the hogs will con- 
tain from 10 to 16 pounds of digestible protein, from 15 
to 40 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and from 8 to 30 
pounds of digestible fat, which indicates that as a food it 
is fairly well balanced, having a nutritive ratio of about 
1 : 5.5. Being slightly of a nitrogenous nature, it should 
be balanced up with such feeds as sweet potatoes, corn, 
sacharrine and non-sacharrine sorghums. Peanuts tend 
to produce soft pork, and this condition is overcome by 
the feeding of a little corn, and especially at the end of 
the feeding of market hogs, for the corn hardens the fat 
sufficiently that it will not be discriminated against. It 
is generally planted in June and grazed off from August 
to January. The great pork-producing value of this crop 
is indicated by the fact that in one recorded instance a 
yield of over 1,000 pounds of pork was obtained from one 
acre. 

Bermuda pasture. — This is by far the most important 
native grass in the South so far as swine production is 
concerned. It is a perfect grazing grass in that it seems 
to be uninjured by the most severe grazing and tramping. 
It can stand drouth when necessary. Swine make good 
use of it, but it must be properly supplemented. It has 
succulent underground roots of which swine are very 
fond. In rooting for these they do no other damage than 



132 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

to make the pasture rough. This is a highly carbo- 
naceous feed, having only about one and a half pounds of 
digestible protein per 100 pounds of grass. The carbo- 
hydrates amount to about 16 pounds and the fat less than 
a half pound per 100 pounds. The nutritive ratio is 1 : 11 
or 12, which suggests supplements of mature legume 
grazing crops, such as peanuts, velvet beans, soy beans 
or soy bean pasture, and w^hen concentrates are used, 
linseed or cottonseed meal, meat meal, or wheat by- 
products made into a slop are valuable. 

This is a permanent grass, and it is generally not 
difficult to obtain a stand. It is propagated by means of 
roots, which will readily take hold if given half a chance. 
This is one of the most persistent grasses and is difficult 
to eradicate when it once gets a hold. In many parts of 
the South this grass grows in connection with lespedeza, 
which makes an excellent maintenance pasture for hogs 
of all kinds, available from one month after the last frost 
in spring to heavy frost in the fall. 

Cowpeas pasture. — The great value of this legume to 
southern agriculture is attested by the fact that it has 
been grown here for over 150 years. It originally came 
from India or China. It is an annual summer legume. 
There are many varieties, and they vary from an upright 
plant to plants with runners 12 to 16 feet in length. The 
seeds are of all colors and mixed, and some varieties are 
early and some late. It is adapted to practically all parts 
of the South, and it is unequaled as a soil renovator and 
legume forage crop for swine. The pigs eat the pods and 
tender leaves and shoots. It is generally not grazed until 
the first peas begin to mature, the peas not all maturing 
at the same time, but coming on along for a month or 



FEEDING SWINE 133 

more. The time at which the pigs are turned on has a 
great deal to do with the feeding value of the crop. One 
hundred pounds of the feed consumed by the pigs is of 
greater feeding value as the crop matures, the consump- 




Feed wastes can be prevented by properly constructed troughs. 
Courtesy W. D. Troutman of North Carolina. 

tion of this amount of feed containing all the way from 
3 to 15 pounds of digestible protein, from 8 to 50 pounds 
of digestible carbohydrate and from .4 to 1 pound of 
digestible fat. It has an average nutritive ratio of about 
1 : 3, which suggests its use in connection with such feeds 
as corn, sweet potatoes, sacharrine and non-sacharrine 
sorghums, Bermuda grass and by-products of the rice 
milling industry. 

It is generally planted in April as soon as all danger 
of frost is past, and it is available from August to 
November. A common practice in most sections is to 
grow a crop of cowpeas either in corn or else after a 



134 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

small grain crop, such as oats, in which case it is gener- 
ally September before it is available for pasture. It is 
not so valuable as soy beans for the production of seed 
for several reasons, not the least among which is the 
necessity for hand picking resulting from the uneven 
ripening, which must be classed as an advantage from the 
standpoint of a swine-grazing crop. 

Oats pasture. — This is a small winter grain and is the 
most extensively grown of all small grains in the South. 
It is planted in the fall in most southern states, but in the 
northern states it must be planted in the spring. It is 
most commonly raised for seed, but its value as a swine- 
grazing crop is rapidly becoming appreciated, especially 
when it is combined with vetch. It is one of the cereals 
that is grazed to quite an extent when young. After 
grazing during nearly all of the latter part of the winter, 
the hogs are generally removed about March 1st or a 
little later to give it a chance to make grain, after which 
it may be grazed off once or twice if properly handled. 
The pasturing of oats at different seasons makes its 
feeding value quite variable, 100 pounds of consumed 
feed containing from 2.5 to 7.5 pounds of digestible 
.protein, from 12 to 48 pounds of digestible carbohydrate, 
from .8 to 3.2 pounds of digestible fat. It is a fairly well- 
balanced ration, having a nutritive ratio of approximately 
1 : 6, but in its immature state a concentrate such as 
middlings or soy beans should be added. It has also been 
found excellent when fed in rations containing vetch, 
rape and alfalfa pastures, although in such instances 
some concentrates should be fed. It is generally avail- 
able from December to June, but the early pasturing 
does not amount to so much in the northern part of the 



FEEDING SWINE 135 

South as nearer the Gulf. A common practice is to follow 
the crop of oats with cowpeas. September is the usual 
month of sowing. 

Rape pasture. — This plant in many respects resembles 
the collard. In shape and color of leaf it resembles the 
rutabaga or Swedish turnip. The leaves grow very rank 
and succulent, and being sweet and tender they are 
quite palatable. It is primarily a winter grower and is 
of little value in summer. There are several varieties, 
but the Dwarf Essex is the best for swine-grazing pur- 
poses. The seed are usually broadcasted in September 
at the rate of five pounds per acre, and a common method 
is to grow the crop in connection with oats. Its value in 
yield of pork often exceeds $25 per acre. The high feed- 
ing value of rape is largely due to its protein content and 
to its succulence. While the dry rape leaves have been 
reported to contain over 20 per cent of protein, the con- 
sumption of 100 pounds of rape on pasture yields only 
about 2 pounds of digestible protein, about 10 of digest- 
ible carbohydrates and less than one pound of digestible 
fat, with a nutritive ratio about 1 : 5.2. This is a fairly 
well-balanced feed and suggests the use of such carbo- 
hydrate concentrates as rice by-products, corn, or chufas, 
and the use of oats and rye pastures in conjunction 
with it. 

Rape yields an immense quantity of forage, and the 
Iowa Station has reported the production of over 1,400 
pounds of pork from an acre. Rape should never be 
grazed when wet or frozen. If it is not pastured too 
closely it will come back several times during the winter 
and spring. It should be allowed to attain a height of ten 



136 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

or twelve inches before the hogs are turned in. With 
this plant grazing can be had from November to June. 

Chufa pasture. — This crop gives great promise for the 
reason that the food is available for pasture at a season 
when other feeds are scarce and the feed is of very high 
value. It is a summer sedge that makes its growth in 
summer, but provides tubers for winter grazing. It is 
admirably adapted to sandy soils and does not do so well 
on heavier soils, which in a way limits its use. Yields of 
from 75 to 150 bushels per acre have been reported. It 
is generally planted in May, 12 to 15 inches apart in 
3-foot rows. The tubers are generally grazed off at any 
time from October to April. Henry and Morrison^ report 
that as much as 600 pounds of pork can be made per 
acre from this crop. These same authors state that 100 
pounds of chufas will yield .4 pounds of digestible pro- 
tein, 10.2 pounds digestible carbohydrates and 3.3 of 
digestible fat, and will have a nutritive ratio of approxi- 
mately 1 : 44. This suggests the use of this crop in con- 
nection with such nitrogenous feeds as buttermilk and 
skim milk, soy beans, bur clover and alfalfa pasture. 

Alfalfa pasture. — In the South this is both a perennial 
winter and summer legume. It has been rather widely 
grown on a limited scale and requires no detailed descrip- 
tion. Twenty to 30 pounds of seed are generally 
sown to the acre in September or October. As a pasture 
crop it is available at all seasons of the year, but to a 
much reduced extent in winter. Its feeding value is high 
tor a succulent grazing crop, and the feeding value per 
100 pounds will often run 3 pounds of digestible protein, 



Feeds and Feeding, p. 245. 



FEEDING SWINE 137 

10 to 12 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and approxi- 
mately a half pound of digestible fat. Being a legume, it 
is of a nitrogenous nature, having a nutritive ratio of 
about 1 : 4, which suggests its use with such feeds as 
sweet potatoes, chufas, sacharrine and non-sacharrine 
sorghums, corn and rice by-products. 

Soy bean pasture. — This legume is generally planted 
in May and provides pasture from July to November, It 
ought to be nearly mature before pasturing. It is highly 
digestible and is rich in oil and protein, containing from 3 
to 25 per cent of the former and from .5 to 10 per cent of 
the latter. The digestible carbohydrates run rather low, 
ranking from 10 to 20 per cent, depending on the stage of 
growth and on the feed other than beans consumed. 
With a nutritive ratio averaging around 1 : 3, it naturally 
requires with it carbonaceous feeds, such as sweet pota- 
toes, corn, rice by-products, and sacharrine and non- 
sacharrine sorghums to make a balanced ration. 

Soy beans are sometimes grown in connection with 
corn, being planted between the rows, the rows having 
been left rather wide. It gives great promise of playing 
a very important role in our general system of swine 
feeding, as it is already doing in many sections. 

Soy beans. — The seed of the soy bean promises to be- 
come one of the chief sources of our protein concentrates. 
The seed are heavy in oil, and this may cause the 
development of a considerable industry, which w^ill leave 
the cake for feeding purposes. Either the meal is valu- 
able, or the whole bean can be fed to advantage, as it is 
very digestible. The plant can be grown over practically 
the entire S juth, and an average yield per acre of around 



138 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

30 bushels can be secured. It is superior to cowpeas not 
only in yield, but the seeds ripen in such a way that the 
crop can be saved without hand picking, as is necessary 
in the case of cowpeas. The seeds are quite digestible, 
and it is not necessary to grind them. Their digestible 
protein content is quite high, being about 30 per cent, 
while the digestible carbohydrates run around 25 and the 
digestible fats from 12 to 15 per cent, with a nutritive 
ratio between 1 : 1.5 and 1 : 2. Their strong nitrogenous 
nature suggests their use in connection with such carbo- 
naceous feeds as chufas, sweet potatoes, sacharrine and 
non-sacharrine sorghums, corn, and possibly molasses. 

Bur clover pasture. — This valuable annual winter 
legume thrives on any soil where Bermuda does well, and 
is largely confined to that area. It is best to seed it 
broadcast in July. It can then be pastured from Febru- 
ary to May. Its great value, too, comes in the fact that 
it can be grown in with Bermuda, as their growing or 
active dates do not interfere, and by the use of Bermuda 
and bur clover it is possible to have a valuable permanent 
pasture through the entire year. Even in cultivated 
ground it does not require reseeding when properly 
handled. Being a legume, it is naturally of a nitrogenous 
nature. Henry and Morrison^ give the per cent of digest- 
ible crude protein at 3.4, that of digestible carbohydrate 
at 8.2 and that of digestible fat at 1.1, and with a nutri- 
tive ratio of 1 : 3.1. This suggests using with it such 
carbohydrate feeds as chufa pasture or corn, about the 
only highly carbohydrate concentrate feeds available at 
this season of the year. The value of this crop is three- 



^ Feeds and Feeding, p. 664. 



FEEDING SWINE 139 

fold — it is not only a valuable swine-grazing crop, but on 
cultivated ground it serves as a winter cover crop, pre- 
venting washing, and in addition adds nitrogen to the 
soil. 

Vetch pasture. — There are over 100 varieties of this 
valuable winter legume in America, but only a few attain 
any importance. So far as we are concerned, we are in- 
terested only in the hairy or sand vetch and the native 
Carolina and Louisiana vetches. These annuals have 
weak, slender stems, and for that reason generally do 
best with some support crop, such as oats or rye. They 
are generally seeded in August or September, and can be 
grazed from December to May 1. They are of a 
nitrogenous character, having a nutritive ratio averaging 
around 1 : 3.5. Being grazed at all stages of growth, their 
feeding value is naturally variable, and the digestible 
protein will run from around 3.5 to 18 pounds per 100 
pounds of feed eaten, and from 8 to 50 pounds of digest- 
ible carbohydrate and from .4 to 1 pound of digestible 
fat in the same amount of feed consumption. This sug- 
gests their use with such carbonaceous concentrates as 
chufas, corn, rice by-products, and possibly molasses, in 
order to make up a balanced ration. 

Rye pasture. — This small winter grain ofifers a good 
winter pasture, because of all of the small grains it makes 
the most growth in the fall and winter months. It is 
often hogged down when mature. It can be pastured 
from December to March or April, when the pigs should 
be removed to give it a chance to make grain, putting 
the pigs back in again in May or June to finish up the 
crop. Being a cereal, it is naturally of a carbonaceous 



140 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

character, but it is not a badly balanced feed. The feed- 
ing value varies greatly on account of the different stages 
of grov^th at v^hich it is fed. One hundred pounds of the 
feed that hogs w^ill consume on rye pasture v^^ill contain 
from 2.5 to 8 pounds of digestible crude protein, from 13 
to 60 pounds of digestible carbohydrate, and from a half 
to a pound of digestible fat, v^ith a nutritive ratio of 
approximately 1 : 6,5. This suggests the combining w^ith 
it of a winter legume like vetch, which is common prac- 
tice, and of feeding with it such nitrogenous feeds as soy 
beans, garbage, rape, wheat by-products, and meat meal 
or tankage. 

Wheat by-products (middlings, shorts, red dog flour). 
— These feeds should only be resorted to when other 
suitable protein concentrates cannot be grown on the 
farm, for protein feeds can generally be grown more 
cheaply than they can be bought. Of these feeds, the 
digestible protein per 100 pounds will run from 10 to 15 
pounds, of digestible carbohydrates about 50 pounds, and 
the digestible fats from 3 to 5 pounds. The nutritive 
ratios will generally run about 1 :4.5, which suggests 
the use of these feeds with such feeds as chufa pasture, 
sweet potato pasture, saccharine and non-saccharine 
sorghums, corn, and rice by-products. These feeds are 
especially valuable in making slops and in enriching 
garbage. 

Kentucky blue grass pasture. — This is a most valuable 
winter grass, but its usefulness is confined mostly to 
Kentucky, Tennessee, North Georgia, North Carolina, 
Mississippi and the northern southern states. The seed 
are usually sown in September at the rate of about 25 



FEEDING SWINE 141 

pounds to the acre, after which time it is permanent if 
allowed to seed. It furnishes grazing from July to 
October of a very superior sort, containing on the aver- 
age above 3 per cent of digestible protein, about 20 per 
cent of digestible carbohydrates and a little less than a 
pound of digestible fat per 100 pounds of grass. The 
nutritive ratio shows the feed to be carbonaceous in 
nature, having a nutritive ratio of something over 1:7, 
which suggests its use with such nitrogenous feeds as 
soy beans, cottonseed meal, alfalfa hay, linseed meal, 
wheat by-products, and tankage and meat meal. This 
would be a most important feed if it were wider in its 
adaptability. Fortunately, where it leaves off, Bermuda 
is the grazing grass that supersedes it, and, as we have 
already seen, this is a valuable swine-grazing grass. 

Velvet bean pasture. — For the extreme South this 
summer legume is a most valuable grazing crop. Its 
usefulness is limited farther north by the time required 
for the maturing of the plant, six months generally being 
required. The early speckled variety matures much 
sooner than the Chinese. By means of its beans it is 
valuable to supply a good protein foraging crop through 
winter. The yields on the better fields have amounted to 
as much as IVz tons of beans in the pod per acre. 

The plant is an annual and is generally seeded in April 
at the rate of six or eight quarts of seed per acre to 
supply fall and winter grazing from September to March. 
It is a very rank grower. As a general rule it cannot be 
satisfactorily grown north of 33° latitude. It is a heavy 
yielder, making from 40 to 60 bushels of seed, and is 
generally grown with corn, for with it a fairly well- 
balanced ration is made, and the two crops are ready for 



142 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

grazing at the same time. One hundred pounds of the 
feed :onsumed by hogs on velvet bean pasture will run 
from 3 to 15, 7 to 45 and .4 to 5 pounds respectively of 
digestible protein, carbohydrates and fats. The nutri- 
tive ratio ranges betw^een 1 : 3 and 1 : 3.5, w^hich suggests 
the use of velvet bean pasture with such feeds as chufas, 
sweet potatoes, saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums. 

Red clover pasture. — This is a rather important 
legume in all those sections where blue grass grows 
well, requiring for growth the same soil and lime condi- 
tions as this grass. It does not do so well on poor sandy 
or white pine soils. The seeds are generally sown in the 
fall farther south, and in the spring in the north, at the 
rate of 15 or 20 pounds per acre, yielding pasture from 
early in the spring until July. In those sections where 
it thrives it acts not only as a pasture crop, but as a cover 
and nitrogen-gathering crop as well. It is especially 
valuable as a feed for brood sows and pigs, for it tends to 
make good bone and develop a strong constitution. It 
is almost a balanced ration in itself, having a nutritive 
ratio of 1:6, and the remainder of the ration fed with it 
should, therefore, be pretty well balanced. Corn and 
wheat by-products with clover make an ideal ration. 

Cottonseed meal. — This valuable by-product of the 
cottonseed industry is becoming of more and more value 
each year as a feed for swine. In the past its consump- 
tion has been limited by the dangers accompanying its 
feeding, but as we better understand it we can safely feed 
continually larger quantities. It is not adapted for con- 
tinuous long feeding, and heavy feeding should never 
exceed 60 days. It can, therefore, be used to advantage 



FEEDING SWINE 143 

in the last feeding period prior to the marketing of fat 
hogs. Another factor that will conduce to greater con- 
sumption is that greater quantities of this feed can be 
fed when the hogs are on the pasture, and with a rapidly 
increasing tendency to the use of grazing crops the in- 
creased consumption of this feed will continue. In the 
feeding of cottonseed meal some precautions seem neces- 
sary. In no case should over one-fifth of the ration be 
made up of this feed, and in the case of young animals 
the amount should be still less. Cottonseed meal is one 
of the narrowest feeds we have, having a nutritive ratio 
of approximately 1 : 1.2, which suggests its use in con- 
nection with rations containing corn, chufas, molasses, 
sweet potatoes, saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums 
and other carbonaceous feeds. It is a very rich feed, 100 
pounds of the meal containing about 35, 25 and 8 pounds 
respectively of digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat. 
It supplies a protein cheaply and is available at all times 
and at all places, and its judicious use is to be encouraged 
and recommended. 

Other less important feeds. — There are many feeds that 
do remarkably well in a small locality, but the adapta- 
bility of the crop is not general. In this respect Florida 
is almost in a class by itself, for in addition to the feeds 
discussed, cassava, beggar weed, Japan cane, St. Augus- 
tine grass, Mexican clover, Para grass and Guinea grass 
all have some importance in swine grazing. In addition 
to these feeds mentioned, there are localities in the South 
where such legumes as white and alsike clover play a 
part in the feeding of swine, and where such grasses as 
Italian rye grass, teosinte, Sudan grass, large water 
grass, foxtail millets, red top, crab grass, carpet grass. 



144 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



Colorado grass, perennial ray grass, southern canary 
grass, big blue stem, tall fescue, Texas blue grass, barn- 
yard grass, tall oat grass and Virginia rye grass attain 
importance. In addition to these, wheat bran, molasses. 




Feeding city garbage on the farm of F. W. Clew, near New 
Orleans, La. 

barley, linseed meal, slaughterhouse and rice by-products, 
lespedeza, crimson clover and wheat pasture, brome and 
rescue grass, saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums, 
and the seeds of wheat, oats, barley, rye, sweet corn, 
velvet beans, cowpeas, cottonseed and hog goobers play 
important roles in some localities. Root crops, as arti- 
chokes, carrots, mangel-wurzels, potatoes, sugar beets, 
rutabagas and turnips, are of some importance. Whole 
milk is rarely fed, whey is not available in any quantity, 
but some buttermilk and skim milk are fed. Pumpkins, 
watermelons and squash are made use of in some locali- 
ties, and it is possible that legume hays, such as red 
clover, alfalfa and cowpea, may be used to a small extent. 



FEEDING SWINE 145 

The droppings from fattening cattle is a feed of impor- 
tance in some cattle-feeding sections. Frequently near 
large cities garbage is fed extensively to fattening swine. 

Concentrated commercial feeding stuffs. — For several 
reasons commercial concentrated feedstufifs for swine 
have not come into very general use. They are subject 
to considerable adulteration with materials having low 
feeding value. Some common adulterants or fillers are 
chaff, oat hulls, peanut hulls, coffee hulls, screenings, 
corn cob, corn bran, oat dust, cottonseed hulls and mill 
sweepings. Most states provide statutes to protect the 
consumer from adulteration of feeds, and require the 
manufacturer to guarantee and keep the standard of their 
products up to certain specifications. Most of our com- 
mercial feedstuffs, such as bean culls, middlings, cotton- 
seed meal, linseed meal, shorts, tankage, meat meal, etc., 
are the by-products of other industries. These kinds of 
feedstuffs have their places, but as a rule they should 
only be used in a supplemental way. 

Condimental feeds. — For all practical purposes con- 
dimental feeds have but little value, and as a general 
proposition are not to be recommended. Careful experi- 
ments have shown that swine utilize no more, if as much, 
of their feed when condiments are added. Tonics and 
alteratives are generally present in these feeds, but aside 
from these the feed value is negligible. Well-known 
materials are used in the compounding of these proprie- 
tary articles, and where such medicines are called for 
the farmer can make for himself simple tonic mixtures. 
He can do this a great deal cheaper than he can purchase 
them. 



146 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

A simple mixture for preventing worms and condi- 
tioning swine that may be easily made up at home is 
that recommended by Dr. Carey of the Alabama Station. 
This mixture is made up of : 

Pulverized charcoal 10 pounds 

Air-slaked lime 10 parts 

Hardwood ashes 10 pounds 

Common salt 5 pounds 

Pulverized sulphate of iron 1 pound 

Sulphur 5 pounds 

This should be mixed thoroughly and placed in a dry 
place, preferably in a self-feeder, so that the hogs can go 
to it at will. This mixture has met with considerable 
success in keeping down worm infestations and keeping 
the hogs in a healthy condition. 

Hardening of fat. — In the making of pork on certain 
feeds, notably in the case of peanuts, we are apt to have 
a fat that is too soft and oily. Frequently such pork is 
discriminated against on the market, and it is up to the 
grower to either harden the fat in some way or to sell at 
a sacrifice. This hardening process is generally accom- 
plished by feeding corn or corn and cottonseed meal in 
connection with the peanuts for a short time before 
placing on the market. Since corn cannot always be 
obtained as cheaply as some other feeds, we should look 
for other possible remedies for the condition. Above all, 
the degree to which the hog is fattened is an important 
factor. The greater the quantity of fat that is placed on 
the hog the softer it becomes. We should, therefore, be 
very careful not to fatten our pork too much, and es- 
pecially the fattening should not be carried beyond that 
point where fattening no longer pays. According to 
some experimental work that has been done, we know 



FEEDING SWINE 147 

that the first fat that is placed on the carcass contains 
more stearin than the later deposited fats, and is there- 
fore harder. The later fats are composed of greater 
percentage of palmitin and olein and are softer. When 
we cannot feed to increase the proportion of stearin, we 
had best not fatten to too high a degree in order to secure 
the degree of hardness of fat that is most desirable. 

Balancing rations. — We have for many years heard 
much of balanced rations. Theoretically, rations should 
be balanced so as to furnish the nutrients in the proper 
proportions and yet not be wasteful. The necessity for 
providing for the correct proportion of different nutrients 
results from the fact that the specific uses to which 
nutrients can be put are rather limited. To a limited 
extent carbohydrates and fats can take the place of one 
another, but proteins have a function that must be pro- 
vided for w^ith proteins. In some instances we have an 
excess of protein feeds, while in other sections we have a 
shortage of proteins as compared with the non-proteins. 
As a general proposition the South is pretty well supplied 
with proteins, and the greatest difficulty generally comes 
in securing an adequate quantity of carbohydrate feeds. 
So far as fats, proteins and carbohydrates are concerned, 
it is an easy matter to pay too much attention to the 
balancing rations. In certain instances, however, rations 
require special attention to see that a sufficient quantity 
of ash is supplied and to see that the quality of the pro- 
teins as well as the quantity is adequate. 

Calculating of rations. — From published tables giving 
the feed requirements for swine, and from tables giving 
the nutrients contained in the several feeds, it is possible 



148 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



to calculate an accurately balanced ration for any given 
herd of swine. Thus, the mathematical calculation of a 
ration is an exact science, for it is possible to figure 
accurately the feed requirements of the animal. 

Of course, under exceptional conditions it may be well 
to calculate the rations for swine where the feeding con- 




Self-feeders are becoming more common in the South. 
Photo by Earl Hostettler of North Carolina. 

sists for the most part of lot feeding. However, investi- 
gations have shown that under average southern condi- 
tions quantity of food is more often deficient than quality. 
Hence, the best plan is to make sure of the quantity and 
provide for the quality as accurately as possible. To 
facilitate this, our swine feeds may be classified into 
carbohydrate, balanced and protein feeds. In feeding, it 
will suffice if sufficient quantities of feeds are given and 
if a carbohydrate feed is fed along with a protein feed, 
or vice versa, while the balanced foodstuffs may consti- 
tute a portion of the ration without necessity of bal- 
ancing. If swine rations are calculated in this crude 
manner, it will be a step in the right direction and will 



FEEDING SWINE 149 

be far superior to the blind way in which we have been 
conducting our feeding in the past. 

The self-feeder. — This is a mechanical device that 
enables the pig or hog to secure feed at will. In prin- 
ciple the self-feeder consists of a bin to hold the feed, a 
feed trap through which the feed leaves the bin, and the 
trough. Self-feeders are made of various materials and 
in various shapes and styles. Wood and sheet metal are 
the two most commonly used materials in self-feeder 
construction. Self-feeders can be made at home or they 
can be purchased. Most agricultural colleges and experi- 
ment stations now furnish free plans or blue prints for 
their construction. 

The use of the self-feeder. — While the use of the self- 
feeder in pork production is a new idea, it is one of the 
most economical, practical, labor-saving and efficient 
methods we can employ, especially where full feeding is 
desired. The importance of the self-feeder is largely the 
result of efforts made by Mr. John M. Evvard of the 
Iowa Station, who has secured some quite favorable 
results. It can be safely stated that the self-feeder has 
passed the experimental stage, and its use is to be gener- 
ally recommended in pork production. Earlier maturity, 
with the resulting saving in feed and labor, is made 
possible. 



CHAPTER VII 

SWINE MANAGEMENT 

Shelter for swine. — The coat of hair on a hog is com- 
paratively thin, and even a cold summer rain will cause 
considerable discomfort. The cold of w^inter, even in the 
mild climate of the South, is disagreeable to the hog, and 




Monitor type winter farrowing house on farm of F. W. Clew, 
near New Orleans, La. 

any suffering he must undergo will cost his owner some- 
thing in the way of feed. Some sort of a roof and enough 
siding to keep out the wind are all that are necessary under 
most conditions. In the winter a good bed of leaves or 
straw not only adds to the hog's comfort and thrift, but a 
saving of feed will be effected. The hogs rarely need to 

150 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 151 

be confined to shelter, but it should be so placed that 
they can make use of it at will. Shelter, shade and run- 
ning water are the most desirable adjuncts to any swine- 
growing plant and are essential to a proper foundation. 
All of these except the shelter may be natural. Under 
the most modern system of pork production a portable 
type of shelter is generally advisable, but there arc condi- 
tions under which a permanent or stationary hog house 
is to be recommended. As a rule, the extent to which 
swine can be grown with grazing crops and the extent 
to which attention is paid to breeding rather than pork 
production determine the type of shelter that is best 
suited. 

Houses and inclosures. — Serviceability is all important, 
and many have spent large sums in making shelters for 
swine that were not serviceable and that were not suited 
to the conditions. The matter of serviceability is largely 
a matter of design, and is dependent on soil, climatic and 
other conditions. Accessibility must be taken into con- 
sideration. This is especially applicable in the case of a 
permanent shelter or inclosure. 

Materials used in construction.— Brick, cement and 
other heavy materials can be used only in the larger sta- 
tionary houses, while practically all portable houses are 
made of wood. Most of the material that should be used 
for hog houses will be wood, on account of its lightness 
and cheapness. Over most of the South this is the proper 
building material to use, and in most cases rough lumber 
will be found quite good enough. 

Sunlight. — Sunlight is one of the best germicides we 
have, and with ample sunlight the dangers from disease 



152 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



are reduced to a minimum. The houses need to be 
located where the sun can strike them at least a part of 
the day, and the houses, if of the closed type, should have 



^0M 


iW 








^ -'•-. -r^mm 



Half monitor type winter farrowing house on Maple Grove 
Farm, Walton, Ky. 

as much window or glass in the tops as is possible and 
consistent. In the planning of a house of either the port- 
able or stationary type provision should be made for 
ample sunlight inside the house, for it offers a cheap 
means of keeping disease bacteria and parasites in check. 

Floors. — On many soils the earth makes as good a floor 
as is required. Cement is not advisable for covering the 
entire floor, but where used it has the advantage of being 
easily kept clean. Cinders and clay make an excellent 
floor for a permanent type of house. Boards will usually 
be found to give the best satisfaction where earth floors 
are not used. If the earth is dry, a dirt floor is good, and 
if properly constructed, with a binder of cinders, there 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 153 

will be but little dust. Regardless of what materials the 
floor is made of, ample bedding should be provided for 
the comfort of the hogs. This bedding should be 
changed often on account of vermin and disease 

Drainage. — In the location of shelter and inclosures, 
whether portable or stationary, it is important to see that 
proper drainage is secured. This is of special importance 
in winter. Shelter for breeding swine should in par- 
ticular be located so as to provide ample drainage. The 
house should never be located in a low place, but on a 
rather high place, with ample slope. With poor drainage 
there are apt to be worms and parasites through summer 
and pneumonia and other diseases during the colder 
months. 

Ventilation. — It is just as important to the health of 
the hog that its house be provided with ample ventilation 
as it is to our health that the air in our homes be changed 
from time to time. Fortunately, it is rare that hog 
houses are made too close, but such is sometimes the 
case. Nearly all hog houses are so arranged that the 
hogs can go in and out at will, the opening providing 
ample ventilation for winter. In the summer, however, 
some houses are inclined to heat very greatly, and in 
such provision should be made at the top for ventilation. 
Windows in the top of the house should be arranged to 
provide a means of easy ventilation when necessary. 
When a wooden floor is used in hog house construction, 
provision should be made to have ventilation underneath 
the floor to keep it dry. 

Large stationary hog house. — This type of house 
should be built to provide for ample sunlight. Plenty of 



154 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

windows at the right height are a most necessary thing. 
Hinged roofs or roof sections that can be turned back 
are also advantageous. If the floor is made of cement, 
a portion of it may be overlaid with boards for sleeping 
quarters. The separate pens in the building should open 
into separate pens outside, but where only a few hogs are 
kept and the building stands in a pasture field, the differ- 
ent groups of hogs may learn to come to the same pens 
to be fed. The styles of this type of house are numerous, 
but the fundamental requirements are the same. 

Shed-roofed portable house. — This house is best made 
in detachable sections. The sections may interlock or be 
hinged or slightly nailed. The roof may slope in one 
direction or in two. The hinges may be at the highest 
part of the roof or may stand at right angles to the slope 
and connect sections. This facilitates raising portions of 
the roof to admit sunlight and air. If the houses are 
made without projections they may be placed close to- 
gether in winter. Farmers' Bulletin 438 of the United 
States Department of Agriculture gives full directions 
for the construction of hog houses, and it may be secured 
without cost upon application to the Secretary. 

The A-shaped portable house. — The A-shaped portable 
house may be made portable either by nailing all to- 
gether and moving it on runners from one place to 
another, or it may be made in sections that interlock but 
which are easily detachable. The sections may be put on 
a wagon to be moved. The house made of sections is 
desirable from another standpoint, since it permits of 
greater ease in cleaning and can be used to admit a 
greater amount of sunshine. 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 



155 



Movable shelter houses. — A very useful shelter, es- 
pecially for summer use, can be made with a roof and one, 
two or three sides, as may be desired. Some of these 
have no sides at all, but have a low roof and are intended 
primarily for protection from the sun. These are more 
necessary on some farms than others, and if one has no 




The common A-shaped portable hog house. 

natural shelter in grazing patches or lots, something of 
this style will be very useful, for it is cheaply con- 
structed, can be removed from a field as soon as the 
grazing is over, so that it will not be in the way of 
ground cultivation and preparation for the next crop. 

Sleeping quarters. — The same shelter that protects the 
hogs from the sun can be used as well for sleeping 
quarters in the field, but when so used it becomes much 
more serviceable if one or two sides are put up. No 
flooring will be necessary in most cases, but if the soil is 



156 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



damp and muddy, a floor in a portion or under all of the 
roof may be advisable. It is only in the large stationary 
houses that one may need to consider the construction of 
separate sleeping and feeding quarters. Comfortable and 
healthy sleeping quarters are of sufficient importance to 
warrant some special attention. 

Farrowing pens. — Where breeding swine are kept it 
often becomes advisable to have a few separate pens for 
the exclusive use of the sows at the time they drop their 
pigs and for a time thereafter. Such pens are called 
farrowing pens and are constructed in the usual manner, 
with the exception that a railing is placed around the 




Cheap type small farrowing house and pen. Courtesy H. S. 
Lippincott of Maryland. 

sides about eight or ten inches from the floor and allowed 
to extend out some six or eight inches, so that if the sow 
lies down against the side of the house any pigs that 
happen to be in the way will be given a chance to escape 
over-lying. A protective railing of this sort can be placed 
in almost any type of house, so that it can be readily con- 
verted into a farrowing pen without much cost or trouble. 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 157 

Pens and inclosures. — It is a lack of pens and in- 
closures on many farms that hinders many from raising 
hogs. What we want in the way of pens is something 
that is satisfactory yet cheap. In lot construction the 
materials to be used will depend on several factors and 
conditions. Board fences are sometimes advisable, but 




A-type of individual farrowing houses in use on farm of F. W. 
Clew, near New Orleans, La. 

under most conditions a wire fence with wooden posts 
will be most economical. Around the hog houses, es- 
pecially if the houses are permanent, a permanent system 
of lots should be constructed. If the houses are portable, 
a portable fence may also be used to advantage. The 
pens and inclosures should be arranged according to the 
hog house or houses, according to the water supply and 
according to the grazing patches. In the arrangement 
and location of lots each farm offers a special problem in 
itself. 

Fencing materials. — In the permanent or stationary 
fences posts are used. These may be of several kinds of 
wood, of cement, steel or of rock. The material of the 
fence itself may be the same in the case of portable or 
drift fences as in the stationary fence. Boards are the 



158 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

most common materials used in drift fences, but wire can 
be used. In permanent fences wire is probably the most 
commonly used material. In portable fences the fence is 
supported by braces at the end of each panel, and with 
some a stake is driven down, to which the brace is lightly 
tacked. Drift fences are about as cheaply constructed as 
permanent fences, because the use of posts is done away 
with, and they have additional advantages in that they 
can be continually kept in use, thus requiring a small 
total length of fence, and they are readily taken out of 
the way to prepare land and cultivate the grazing crops. 

Water supply. — There are but few farms that have a 
stream that is adapted to supply water to all fields. 
Where it is possible and feasible an artificial water 
supply system is best suited, for it is under control and 
clean water can always be provided. A small tank with a 
hydraulic ram is an ideal method of water supply where 
the ram can be used. If no stream is available for a ram 
a pump and well can be used to supply the water. In the 
arrangement of the lots the water supply should be taken 
into consideration. Not only is water needed for drink- 
ing purposes, but some is needed in the wallows, for 
mixing feeds and for cleaning up. A supply of ten 
gallons per day per hog should be available regardless of 
the source, and it should be placed so as to be of greatest 
value to the hog and still be economically supplied. 

Bedding. — In the sleeping quarters, whether they be 
for brood sows or for fattening swine, attention should 
be given to the bedding. It should be changed often for 
sanitary reasons. It should not be so damp as to be 
soggy and unhealthy, and neither should it be so dry as 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 159 

to be dusty and cause lung troubles. If the place is in- 
clined to be damp, such materials as sawdust, dry sand 
and straw should be used freely. If the place is already 
inclined to be too dry and dusty, fresh sawdust, cinders 
and straw may be used to advantage. 

The herdsman. — Other things being equal, the owner 
himself makes the best herdsman. In addition to the 
experience, the herdsman must have a natural love for 
his pigs. A noticeable feature of a good herdsman is 
that he soon knows accurately each individual in the 
herd, not only knowing its physical conformation, but 
also its behavior and ability to respond to treatment. 
Painstaking care and constant attention are called for 
from the herdsman. He should be a willing worker, with 
intuition and judgment, especially at such times as far- 
rowing, when the loss of a litter means the loss of at 
least six months' time with one sow, which, counting 
feeding and interest on the investment, soon amounts to 
an appreciable sum. Good herdsmen are scarce, but if 
one desires a good one and can secure one at a little 
additional cost, it is generally an economical investment. 

One litter or two. — Something like half of the sows are 
only permitted to have but one litter a year, which comes 
generally in the spring. Since the period of gestation is 
only about 112 days, and since pigs can be weaned readily 
at two months of age, it is entirely possible and feasible 
to grow two litters a year, two months being allowed for 
the sow to rest and become rebred in. It is not eco- 
nomical for the sow to raise but one litter, and on any 
well-regulated farm two litters will be obtained. So far 
as the investment is concerned, two litters cost about the 



160 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

same as one, and since the sow must be maintained, the 
additional feed cost is not much greater. The great 
trouble has been that the food supply is always more 
abundant through the summer and fall, while it is gener- 
ally scarce during the late winter and early spring. The 
aim should be to grow two litters a year, but to do this 
will require greater skill in the arranging for feed and in 
the caring for fall pigs, which are, as a rule, a little more 
difficult to raise than the spring pigs. 

Little pigs need exercise. — Provision should always be 
made to see that the little pigs do not lack for exercise. 
Fortunately, under pasture systems of raising, provision 
is automatically made for exercise. The reason we desire 
the little pigs to have exercise is that the bone may be 
developed and that they may have ample constitutional 
capacity. 

Runts. — In nearly every litter there is one runt, and 
frequently there are two or three. When the litters are 
quite large it may be economy to kill these runts. If the 
litter is small, it pays to worry along v/ith them, and 
after a time all of the runts can be placed either in a lot 
or grazing patch to themselves, where they can be given 
special attention and feed. The occurrence of runts can- 
not be avoided, but it can be mitigated by ample and 
judicious feeding of the pregnant sow. In by far the 
majority of cases the lack of size has resulted from a lack 
of nutrition, and it is easily overcome if means can be 
made for special nourishment for a time for the runts. 

Marking the litters. — It is desirable to mark the litters 
in the case of pure-bred swine in order that the ancestry 
may be definitely known. Perhaps the easiest system of 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 161 

marking is by means of notches in the ears. A single 
notch in the outer rim of the right ear indicates that the 
pig belongs to the first litter born that season. The 
second litter is marked by two notches in the outer rim 
of the right ear. Litter No. 3 is marked by a single notch 
in the outer rim of the left ear. A pig of the tenth litter 
is marked by a single notch in the inner rim of the right 
ear. A pig of the thirtieth litter has a single notch in 
the inner rim of the left ear. A notch, therefore, has a 
value of 1, 3, 10 or 30, according to its location in the 
outer rim of the 'right or left ear or the inner rim of the 
right or left ear. The number of the litter to which a pig 
belongs is indicated by the sum of the values of all of the 
notches present. A hundred litters in the same herd can 
be marked by this system. It is useless to try to give 
each pig an individual number, for all of the pigs in one 
litter should have the same ancestry. 

Fall vs. spring pigs. — As has been pointed out in a 
previous paragraph, spring pigs have an advantage over 
fall pigs in that they come at a season of the year when 
they will have an abundance of feeds to grow on during 
the summer and an abundance to fatten on in the fall. 
Fall pigs come at a time when the feeds for growing 
come high and when the grazing feeds for fattening at 
an early age are almost not to be had. The result is that 
fall pigs must be kept longer than spring pigs before 
marketing, and the cost is thereby increased that much. 
A properly equipped breeder will arrange for nearly as 
many pigs to be dropped in the fall as in the spring and 
will arrange to get them off to market as early as 
possible in the summer or early fall, when prices are 
generally gqod. The advantages of spring pigs over fall 



162 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



pigs are thus largely offset by a slightly cheaper feed in 
the fall and early winter, and by being able to get them 
to market before the spring pigs at a time when hogs are 
generally a little higher. One should lay special 
emphasis on the supply of feeds for the late winter and 




Grazing lots make fall litters as profitable as spring farrowings 
on the farm of Joe R. Martin in Georgia. 

spring months, and by a proper system of feed supply 
the fall pigs can be made just as profitable as spring pigs. 

Early castration best. — Many hog raisers let the pigs 
get too old before castrating. The castrating should be 
done at about five weeks of age, for the reason that the 
hog is then easier to hold, loses but little blood, and seems 
but little disturbed by the operation. This early castra- 
tion also prevents miscellaneous breeding and breeding 
too young. The details of the operation are given in the 
next chapter. 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 163 

Young vs. old sows. — There is but little difference 
between the pigs of young and old sows. Owing to the 
fact that gilts with the first litter do not usually do as 
well as older sows, it seems advisable where possible to 
use sows, other things being equal. It is nearly always 
true that bred gilts can be obtained at lower figures than 
older tried sows, and this largely accounts for their more 
general use by those entering the swine business. It 
seems that the best sows for breeding purposes are there- 
fore the young sows, but not gilts. With the old sows 
the period of usefulness is too limited, and after a certain 
age is reached they are apt to become barren. Other 
things being equal, a sow with the second litter is about 
as good as one can do, because she will take good care of 
her pigs and her period of usefulness will be greatest. A 
sow has generally lived the best part of her life during the 
first seven years. Some fail before that age and some exceed 
it. Some sows will breed regularly for ten years and more. 

Pigs from old and young sows. — As pointed out in the 
previous paragraph, the age at which the sow is of great- 
est usefulness is between the time of her second litter and 
the time when her breeding powers begin to fail. Some 
are inclined to discriminate against the pigs of both the 
first and second litters, but there seems to be no just 
ground for such discrimination. Owing to the fact that 
pigs coming from sows that have had two litters have 
been more fully nourished than in the case of younger 
sows, they may have some slight advantage. With the 
sows of the first litter the pigs suffer some because during 
pregnancy the sow continues her growth and some extra 
nutrition is required, which is obtained at the expense of 
the nutrition of the pigs. 



164 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Cost of a fifty-pound pig. — It is possible for a fifty- 
pound pig to be produced at figures varying all the way 
from $5 to $50. To figure the cost of a pig at birth, one 
will have to figure the cost of the sow, interest and in- 
suranee-on-her fof-sixmonths, and the -cost of her upkeep 
for six months. Interest, taxes, insurance and other fixed 
charges would amount to $5 for the six months. The 
feed cost for six months will range from $10 to $18. If 
the cost amounts to $18, and there are six pigs, each will 
cost $3 at birth. If the cost is $18, and there are nine 
pigs in the litter, the cost at birth will be about $2, which 
is a fair average cost figure. It costs all the way from 
less than 50 cents to over a dollar per week to raise a 
pig. At eight weeks of age the pig should weigh close to 
50 pounds, and at a maximum of $1 per week for feed 
and care, and at $2 each for cost at birth, the total cost 
would be about $10 each. In many instances it will be 
possible to produce pigs at eight weeks of age for half 
the above, or for $5 each. 

Weaning the pig. — The time to wean a pig is when it 
is from six to eight weeks of age. The weaning process 
should consist in a gradual feeding of other feeds until 
the pig can get along without its mother's milk. After 
weaning the quantity of feed should be increased as 
rapidly as the pig's appetite indicates. The proportion 
of concentrates to be fed will depend on what other feeds 
accompany it. 

Care of the sow and pigs at weaning time. — The wean- 
ing of pigs should not be sudden. By the time the pigs 
are eight weeks of age they will have become able to eat 
almost anything the older hogs can eat, and if they have 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 165 

been fed separately from the sows, they will have ac- 
quired more dependence on other feeds than the sow's 
milk. And, if they have become gradually accustomed 
to being absent from the sow, the weaning may be finally 
consummated by permitting them to return to the sow 
once a day for two or three days, meanwhile lessening 
the sow's feed so that less milk will be produced. The 
gradual weaning is as much for the sake of the mother 
as the pigs. The sow may be expected to come into heat 
a few days after the pigs are weaned and regularly 
thereafter until bred. 

Care of the gilts. — After weaning the gilt will require 
but little special care and attention up to the breeding 
age. Ample grazing crops should be supplied, and she 
should be forced, especially with roughages and bulky 
feeds, as the middle will be developed in size, which will 
be a distinct advantage later. She should not, however, 
be fed so as to make her excessively fat. At eight or nine 
months she may be bred, after which some further atten- 
tion will be required. She should not be placed with 
larger animals and the supply of proteins should be in- 
creased. The gilt usually grows but little during the 
later stages of pregnancy, which shows the importance 
of late breeding and liberal feeding. 

Age at which to breed. — A mistake that is commonly 
made is to breed too young. The result is that the gilt 
is forced not only to nourish herself, but she must also 
nourish the developing embryos. She cannot do both of 
these perfectly. If pregnancy intervenes before the 
growth process has advanced beyond a certain point, not 
only will the final size of the sow be affected, but she 



166 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

will never make as good a mother as she would have had 
she been more nearly mature. It must be remembered 
that this extra drain on the gilt does not come only dur- 
ing pregnancy, but it exists all the time she is suckling 
the pigs. Under no circumstances should a gilt be bred 
so that she will farrow under one year of age 

The time to breed. — Perhaps the most favorable time 
for a litter of pigs to come is in the early spring, when 
they can feed on the newly starting grass. A second 
litter, coming in September or October, should be pro- 
vided for. Our southern climate will permit of this, and 
especially do they seem to do well where a good swamp 
pasture is accessible. 

The breeding season. — Sows will usually come in heat 
a short time after the pigs are weaned and about every 
twenty-one days thereafter. The pigs should suckle for 
about eight weeks. When the sow comes in heat she 
should be taken to a boar, and after a single uninter- 
rupted service she may just as well be taken back to her 
lot. The sow, when in heat, usually indicates it by 
swelling of the vulva and by a change in voice. Instead 
of a squeal there is a rather long-drawn-out roar. When 
a sow fails to come into heat there is something physio- 
logically wrong. Of course, they will not come in heat 
if too old or if they have been bred. If the pigs are not yet 
weaned they need not be expected to come in heat, and if 
excessively fat they are not so apt to come in. The 
period may sometimes be hastened by placing the sow in 
the same lot with the boar. If a sow comes in heat but 
will not catch, the best thing that can generally be 
done is to fatten her for pork, unless she is an ex- 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 167 

ceptionally valuable sow, when other expedients may be 
resorted to. 

Age and time to breed pure-bred sows. — A great many 
of our best breeders make a practice of having their gilts 
bred to drop pigs at one year of age, and, if they have 
been properly pushed along, this is not too young. 
Others seem to prefer to wait until later. In farrowing 
at from one year to fifteen months of age gilts from one 
spring may farrow the first litter the next spring. Fall 
pigs are usually a little slower growing than spring pigs 
and fall-farrowed gilts may frequently be bred to farrow 
in the winter or early spring after they are a year of age. 
While most breeders prefer spring litters on account of 
the food supply for the several months to come, fall 
litters or litters at any other season are all right and can 
be made successful. Throughout the southern states the 
market for pure-bred pigs is best in the late winter 
months and pigs farrowed in the early fall can often be 
sold early to good advantage. 

Period of gestation. — After the ova or germ cells of the 
sow have been fertilized, gestation or pregnancy starts, 
which ends with the expulsion of the pigs from the 
uterus. The length of the period of gestation is fairly 
constant and will vary but little either way from 112 
days. Heavy feeding tends to hasten and light feeding to 
retard the farrowing date. Early-maturing types also 
require slightly less time. A sudden cold spell, nervous 
excitement, the sight of another sow farrowing, the sight 
or taste of fresh meat or blood, and certain drugs, as 
ergot, cotton root extract and digitalis, may cause pre- 
mature termination of gestation. 



168 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Care of pregnant sows. — In the case of the gilt in par- 
ticular, attention should be given to ample food supply, 
for she not only has to have additional feed for the 
developing pigs, but for the continuation of her growth. 
The quantity of concentrates or grain v^ill have to be in- 
creased as pregnancy advances and the quantity of feed 
should be according to appetite. Pasture is especially 
valuable, for it gives ample exercise, w^hich is necessary 
to the pregnant sow^. After 2^ or three months has 
been reached, the pregnant sow^s should be placed in a 
lot together, away from other hogs, and especially away 
from large stock. The food supply should have variety, 
and it should be of such a nature as to encourage growth. 
The pregnant sow has a strong natural tendency to 
fatten, this being nature's way to provide for ample food 
for the coming pigs in case there comes a shortage in 
food supply. It is possible to make the sow too fat and 
clumsy. Thus the feeds must not be too fattening, but 
should contain a high percentage of protein. Cowpeas, 
alfalfa, peanuts, velvet beans, and other protein feeds 
have special value. A little tankage or meat meal is a 
good thing for brood sows at all times, and especially 
during pregnancy. Care should always be taken to see 
that too much corn is not fed for too long a time during 
pregnancy. The same may be said of other highly car- 
bonaceous or fattening feeds. 

Abortion. — We frequently have cases of abortion or 
slinking of pigs. This may be brought on by several 
things. It may be due to a contagion or disease. It is 
generally the result of some accident, such as a kick from 
a horse or mule, from over-heating, or from rough han- 
dling otherwise. It may also be due to something eaten. 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 169 

as many poisons occur in certain feeds that are capable 
of producing premature birth when sufficient quantities 
are consumed. When abortion takes place during the 
later stages of pregnancy, some difficulties, may be ex- 
perienced in handling the surplus of milk in the udder. 




Winter farrowing house on farm of N. H. G. Balfour in 
North Carolina. 

In most cases this milk will be absorbed without trouble, 
but in other cases some treatment will have to be given 
to check and dry up the secretion. In some instances 
abortion or premature farrowing becomes constitutional 
and chronic, when the best thing that can be done is to 
fatten the sow for pork. 

Farrowing. — Prior to the delivery of the young certain 
changes take place with the mother, which indicate the 
approaching event. The causes of these changes are 
none too well understood, but they are purely physio- 
logical and normal, and are probably brought about 
through the agency of harmones or internal secretions. 



170 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Among other changes the udder becomes congested and 
swollen. At first the secretion is waxy, but it later de- 
velops into colostrum and then to normal milk. Just 
prior to delivery the belly sinks and seemingly enlarges. 
The vulva becomes congested and swollen and quite 
elastic, capable of being widely distended. The cartilagi- 
nous connections between the bones, especially bones 
near the pelvic region, become very elastic. An uneasi- 
ness and restlessness are experienced. Seclusion is gen- 
erally sought and an attempt is often made to make a 
rather elaborate bed. The gestation ceases with the ex- 
pulsion of the embryos during labor, which normally 
results involuntarily from violent abdominal muscular 
exertions and certain other physiological activities. In 
some instances it may be necessary to provide assistance 
to farrowing sows. This is because difficult farrowing 
is frequently encountered, which may result disastrously 
to both the sow and the pigs. High condition, disease, 
weakness, wrong presentation, injury and abnormalities 
may cause these difficulties. Aid is imperative in cases 
where much difficulty is experienced, and it often be- 
comes necessary to assist in removal of the pigs by 
means of pig forceps, which may be of various types 
and makes. 

The sows should be watched carefully as the farrow- 
ing date approaches. About 112 days from service she 
may be expected to farrow. In the colder months the 
farrowing should take place under shelter, preferably 
in a well-lighted ventilated and roomy farrowing pen. 
The herdsman should watch all his sows carefully dur- 
ing farrowing time, but should not interfere in the least 
unless it becomes necessary. Soon after the pigs have 



172 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

been dropped the pigs should be inspected to see that 
they are all right and to remove any dead ones. In the 
case of pure-bred swine the number, sex, and farrowing 
date must be recorded so that the pigs can be registered. 

Management of brood sows. — Aside from the matter 
of adequate feed supply of the right sort, there is noth- 
ing of so great importance to the success of the swine 
business as proper brood sow management. So far as 
the sows are concerned, we must take into account such 
factors as age, breed, condition, conformation, quality 
and disposition in their relation to reproduction. In ad- 
dition such external factors as feed supply, shelter, care 
and attention should be given due consideration. In all 
our efforts to secure maximum returns we must take 
every factor at what it is worth and constantly keep in 
mind in brood sow management that what is wanted is 
that animal that will mother the greatest number of 
thrifty pigs that will return a profit to their grower. 

Caring for the boar. — While boars as a rule can stand 
more rough treatment and lack of care than any other 
class of hogs they respond readily to good treatment. 
They require a little different treatment from all other 
classes of hogs. It is an easy matter to make them too 
fat. They need pasture and only moderate amounts of 
concentrates. The boar should not be allowed to run 
with the sows, as he will worry both himself and them. 
Boars need some attention after they attain maturity to 
keep their tusks cut so that they will not injure people 
or stock. A very good way to do this is by means of a 
bolt cutter. When not on pasture and when lot fed, 
they may need their feet trimmed occasionally. If the 



SWINE MANAGEMENT 173 

skin becomes too harsh and rough it may be improved 
by applying crude oil, old lard or other greases. Above 
all, the boar should be kept gentle if such is possible. 
He should be handled often, firmly, but gently. 

Bad habits. — Practically all bad habits to which swine 
are subject are either the direct or indirect result of poor 
feeding or faulty management. Hogs that are closely 
confined about the house or barn frequently develop 
such bad habits as chicken eating, rooting, fence break- 
ing or climbing, ill temper, chasing other animals, eating 
pigs and cow sucking. Nine times out of ten these bad 
habits are the result of improper feeding and poor man- 
agement. It is a difficult matter to break hogs of these 
habits, and a much better way of handling the situation 
is to remove the cause, which means proper feeding on 
grazing crops in the field. 



CHAPTER VIII 

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 

Indications of disease. — One of the essentials to suc- 
cess in any system of swine industry must of necessity 
consist in the ability to detect and control swine diseases. 




Sunlight and dip are used to prevent disease on the farm of 
W. W. Shay, Cruso, N. C. 

There are so many ailments to which swine are subject 
and in which the mortality is high that it becomes im- 
portant that we be able not only to recognize disease 
when it occurs, but we should know the causes of disease 
in order that we may more successfully prevent them. 

174 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 175 

Likewise, we should know the recognized methods of 
treatment for the more common diseases. It is an art 
to be able to detect disease in its primary stage so that 
it can be properly handled to prevent spread and properly 
treated to effect a cure where possible. We must, there- 
fore, know what the healthy condition of the hog is and 
know what conditions are indicative of lack of health. 

In many diseases the first place where its effect will 
be noticed is in the temperament or disposition of the 
affected animals. They may be sluggish and dull, refuse 
to eat, and show other indications of lack of health. On 
the other hand, in some diseases the nervous system may 
be so affected that they become excitable to the extent 
of delirium. Staggering gait, convulsions, paralysis and 
twisting of the head to one side and walking in a circle 
are conditions of disposition and temperament sugges- 
tive of diseased condition. 

Another valuable guide to the health condition of swine is 
the condition of the hair or bristles. While the hog has 
coarse bristles that are comparatively thinly distributed 
over his body, their general appearance is one of the best 
indications we have of a hog's general condition or thrift. 
When a hog is improperly nourished or is suffering from 
disease, one of the first places it shows up is in the hair 
coat. So long as the hair is bright and glossy, and lies 
^down smoothly, giving the whole body a slick appear- 
,ance, we look upon the hog as doing well and in a thrifty 
condition. If, on the other hand, the hair is dull and 
stands on end and is inclined to curl up we say he is not 
normal and is unthrifty or diseased in some way. This 
unthriftiness may be due to lack of sufficient food or feed 
of the right sort, or it may be due to parasites or to other 



176 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

pathological conditions. All of our hogs should be care- 
fully watched, and when they show an unhealthy condi- 
tion of hair coat the condition should be corrected as soon 
as possible. 

In addition to the hair the condition of the hide is also 
an excellent indicator of the health condition of the hog. 
The hide or skin follows the hair coat in condition to a 
large extent. In health it is soft and mellow. An in- 
elastic, hard, rigid, scaly skin is indicative of an un- 
healthy condition. 

In diseased conditions we also find variations from the 
normal in the body temperature, pulse rate and respira- 
tion, or the rate of breathing. The normal temperature 
of a pig varies from 101 to 105 degrees with an average 
of about 103 degrees. The temperature is changed from 
the normal by several conditions, even in health. The 
normal pulse rate of the pig is from 70 to 80, and the 
respiration rate is 10 to 20 normally, but with excite- 
ment or heat it may reach 50 or 60. The pulse, respira- 
tion and temperature are all increased by excitement and 
heat, and lowered by cold and rest. Other indications 
of a diseased condition are to be found in the appearance 
of the exposed mucous membranes and in the condition 
and quantity of the excretions and secretions. The ap- 
plication of these to the detection of disease requires a 
little more skill than the previously mentioned indicators, 
and use can be made of them only by those that are more 
or less skilled. 

Administering medicines. — The expert herdsman will 
become more or less experienced in the administration 
of medicines. Under the majority of circumstances the 
medicine will be administered in one of four ways. First 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 177 

of all is the administration by way of the mouth, next 
is by injection beneath the skin, the third is by direct 
application to the affected parts, and the fourth is by 
way of the rectum. There are other ways in whch medi- 
cines may be administered, but they are seldom resorted 
to. In administration by way of the mouth the medicine 
may be given in the food in most cases, or else it may 
be given as a drench, if proper care is taken. In drench- 
ing a pig the important consideration is not to pour the 
medicine in the pig's mouth while he is excited and 
squealing, but to wait until it becomes quiet. Injections 
under the skin are sometimes made use of where the 
drugs are not too irritant. The administration of medi- 
cine by way of the rectum is rarely made use of. Where 
the dosage is to be given to a number of hogs care must 
be exercised to get an even distribution to prevent over- 
dosage and to get a sufficient dosage all the way round. 

Veterinarians. — There are a few troubles that occur 
in the swine herd that can be treated by the herdsman 
without the aid of a veterinarian. There are many times, 
however, that the services of a veterinarian should be had 
when they are not. By all means when a condition oc- 
curs quite general over the herd a veterinarian should be 
called if there is the least doubt as to the disease and its 
condition. Even when the trouble is not general in the 
herd, but is not understood and the disease is doubtful, 
it will pay in most cases to consult a veterinarian. The 
fact should be impressed upon the grower of swine that 
practically all diseases of swine are amenable to treat- 
ment and control through the application of scientific 
knowledge, and above all a licensed or graduate veteri- 
narian should be called in, and not a quack who 



178 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

can do little but harm in spite of his probably false 
reputation. 

Swine diseases. — In a general way the diseases of 
swine may be divided into three main groups. The first 
of these is the result of an infection of some sort and may 
be either infectious or contagious, depending upon the 
method of transmission from one animal to another. In 
addition to diseases due to microscopic organisms there 
are certain other diseases due to macroscopical organisms. 
Such diseases as these are conveniently classified as para- 
sitical diseases. There are also a number of diseases that 
can be classified as surgical, since surgery is involved in 
their treatment. As a good example of surgical diseases, 
we might refer to hernia or rupture. In addition to this 
classification, diseases are frequently classified into 
groups according to the organs, parts, or systems 
affected. Among these groups we find diseases of the 
circulatory system, digestive system, excretory system, 
locomotor system, nervous system, reproductive system, 
respiratory system and diseases of the skin. 

Circulatory system. — The circulatory system involves 
the heart and the blood vessels carrying blood to the dif- 
ferent parts of the body and returning it to the heart. 
Diseases affecting the circulatory system are generally 
the indirect result of unhealthful conditions in other parts 
of the body, and this becomes one of the first systems 
affected in general disease. Aside from the matter of 
pulse rate and strength and other minor diseases of the 
system, there are two diseases affecting this system that 
are not uncommon in the swine herd. The first of these 
is septicaemia or blood poisoning, and the other is fatty 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 179 

degeneration of the heart. Such diseases as pleurisy, hog 
cholera, pneumonia and rheumatism may give rise to 
inflammation of the tissues around the heart. General 
blood and heart diseases are indicated by high fever, 
weak, quick and irregular pulse, with indications of pain. 
Treatment of diseases of the circulatory system is usually 
unsatisfactory and should be preventive rather than 
curative. 

Septicaemia (blood poisoning). — This trouble can be 
suspected where an operation has been performed, after 
a difficult farrowing, or following a bruise or injury. In 
the case of internal abscesses it occurs without apparent 
external symptoms : Fever, loss of appetite, muscular 
tremors, stupidity and weakness are the usual symptoms. 
The disease is due to absorption of the toxic substances 
produced by the bacteria. As a usual thing the infection 
comes from an external wound or bruise, but in the case 
of abscesses septiccemia may result from pyogenic bacteria 
or abscesses in different parts of the body, which ab- 
scesses may or may not become apparent on the surface. 
The treatment is preventive. Wounds should be kept in 
such condition as not to predispose to infection. Closed 
abscesses and wounds should be opened and cleansed 
and washed with a solution of boric acid, hydrogen per- 
oxide or other disinfectants. Diseased individuals should 
be separated from the herd and given nutritious and 
easily digested feeds, and in some cases tonics may be 
advisable. 

Fatty degeneration of the heart. — This disease occurs 
not infrequently under lot-feeding conditions where ex- 
tensive use is made of corn. It is due to over-feeding with 



180 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

fat-making feeds without sufficient exercise. The dis- 
ease is characterized by a fatty deposition around the 
heart and by a partial replacing of the muscular tissue 
of the heart with fatty tissue. The symptoms are a weak, 
irregular heart action, generally accompanied by difficult 
breathing. The prevention of the disease largely con- 
sists in proper feeding with ample exercise. 

Digestive system. — There are many diseases affecting 
directly and indirectly the digestive system. This is be- 
cause the system is so vitally connected with every other 
system on the body. When the digestive organs are 
diseased all other parts of the body will suffer. The 
proper feeding has more to do with the condition of the 
digestive system than any other factor, and under health- 
ful feeding conditions organic diseases will be largely 
prevented and the animal will be better able to ward off 
infectious and contagious diseases. Diseased conditions 
of the digestive system are manifested in several ways. 
The appetite is invariably affected one way or the other. 
The pulse, temperature, and the respiration are also 
affected in most diseases. Among the more important 
diseases affecting the digestive system are indigestion or 
gastritis, which occurs in both the chronic and acute 
forms, gastro enteritis, scours, diarrhea, constipation, hog 
cholera and thumps. 

Indigestion (gastritis). — Cases of indigestion are quite 
common in the average herd. Many of these cases are 
acute and others chronic. Where acute the cause is 
generally due to over-feeding or to irritating feeds, and 
indigestion is not infrequent from the administering of 
quack remedies for fancied ailments. Poor care in feed- 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 181 

ing or management, exposure and other debilitating in- 
fluences may lead to forms of indigestion. Worms and 
insufficient supply of nutritious feeds and excess of cot- 
tonseed meal are common causes of chronic indigestion. 
The presence of indigestion is indicated by vomiting, 
fever, voluntary isolation, evidences of pain, constipation, 
which is generally followed by diarrhea, and in chronic 
forms it is generally accompanied by a general unthrifty 
condition and slow and stunted growth. Restlessness 
and evidences of abdominal pain are noticeable symptoms 
in acute forms of the disease. The trouble may or may 
not result in the death of the animal, depending on the 
cause of the indigestion, the severity and treatment. 
First the cause should be determined and that removed. 
Care must be taken not to give irritating drugs. In acute 
cases induced vomiting followed by a dose of oil is ex- 
cellent treatment. Comfortable quarters, a light but nu- 
tritious diet and removal of the cause will generally 
effect a cure in a short time in acute cases. About the 
same treatment is recommended for chronic cases. A 
vermifuge, followed by a physic and repeated every 10 
days, with possibly a tonic and with proper regulators 
should soon give relief. 

Hog cholera. — There is no greater obstacle to a more 
extensive swine industry in the South than hog cholera, 
a very contagious disease, often sweeping away entire 
herds at a time. The serious nature of the disease makes 
it imperative that we more thoroughly understand the 
disease in order that we can more successfully cope with 
it when the necessity arises. It is caused by a specific 
organism so small that it cannot be seen under the most 
powerful microscope, and it can be filtered through the 



182 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

most dense filter. These facts make it difficult to study 
the organism and to trace its transmission from one place 
to another. Swine only are susceptible, and the suscepti- 
bility is very high, especially in the acute form, when 
frequently an entire herd will become infected very 
quickly. The disease is also characterized by a very high 
death rate. The period of incubation, or the time that 
elapses between the time the hog is exposed and the time 
it takes the disease, is variable. In some cases it may be 
two days, and again it may be two weeks, depending on 
the physical condition of the hog or on its susceptibility, 
the virulence of the strain and the method in infection. 
The period of incubation is much shorter in the acute 
than in the chronic form. 

Among the symptoms are loss of appetite, rise in tem- 
perature, rapid intoxication and high death rate. Un- 
fortunately, there are other diseases characterized by 
similar symptoms and it is only possible to definitely 
diagnose hog cholera by post-mortem examination. In 
addition to the ante-mortem symptoms we find a char- 
acteristic huddling together in pens or nests, stiffness of 
joints, a cough, especially in the chronic form, a mucous 
discharge from the eyes and nostrils and red blotches on 
the skin, especially on the abdomen. At first the animal 
is constipated, but that is later followed by a persistent 
diarrhea. In cholera, especially in the chronic form, w^e 
find a wide range of symptoms, which result largely from 
secondary infections with other organisms. These sec- 
ondary infections frequently complicate diagnosis. In 
describing the diagnosis of hog cholera it is generally 
customary to differentiate between the acute and chronic 
forms, the differentiation being more or less arbitrary and 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 183 

based upon the rapidity of the course and mortality of 
the disease. 

There are several diseases that are apt to become con- 
fused with hog cholera when only the external symptoms 
are considered. Among these parasitic infestation is 
commonly confused with cholera and is also associated 
indirectly with it. Acute and chronic gastritis or indi- 
gestion has somewhat similar symptoms. Pneumonia 
and swine plague are other diseases apt to be confused 
with it. Thus the post-mortem diagnosis is most reliable. 
On post-mortem the cholera hog will show in acute cases 
characteristic hemorrhagic lesions. These occur in 
the skin, in the serous mucous lining of the body cavit}'', 
intestines, kidneys and lungs. In chronic cases the 
lesions may take the form of ulcerations, occurring in 
about the same locations as in the acute form. 

Knowing of the dangers of hog cholera, one of the most 
important things to know is how to prevent it. To do 
this we must first know how it is spread or introduced 
into herds. Above all, the infected hog is probably the 
most important factor. If the hog is alive, it should be 
subjected to the most rigid quarantine. It it dies the 
carcass should be burned or buried deeply. Before a new 
hog comes into a herd it should be placed in quarantine 
for at least four weeks. The disease can be controlled 
and prevented by proper sanitary precautions and the 
judicious use of preventive serum. The methods by 
which the disease can be carried from an infected to a 
healthy herd are numerous. Dogs, pigeons, other ani- 
mals, men and farming equipment of all kinds can carry 
the disease from an infected to a healthy herd. The 
buzzard is reputed to play an important part in the dis- 



184 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

semination of the disease, but if we would destroy the 
carcasses of hogs that die from cholera this source of 
possible infection would cease to a large extent. Above 
all, a healthy herd is not nearly so apt to become 
infected with cholera as an unhealthy one. We should, 
therefore, keep our hogs healthy and free from worms. 
If cholera is in the immediate community, or if the herd 
has had a good chance for infection, an experienced per- 
son should vaccinate the herd with scrum. Good hog 
cholera serum properly used is a sure preventive of hog 
cholera. The use of scrum as a preventive is to be 
recommended above all others. Losses from hog cholera 
can be eliminated by keeping the herd immuned, but under 
ordinary conditions this is not an advisable practice. 

When a herd becomes infected quack remedies and 
medicines should be avoided. A competent veterinarian 
should be called in. If the disease is cholera, all healthy 
hogs ready for the market should be marketed at once 
where permissible by law. Sick animals should be iso- 
lated at once from the herd. Dead hogs should be burned 
and all rubbish cleaned up, houses and nests should be 
closed until disinfected, and wallows should be filled up 
or drained. Quicklime should be used on all places 
known to be infected. If cholera is present provision 
should be made at once to inoculate all animals in the 
herd, both sick and well. The serum is given to the well 
to prevent them from having the disease and to the sick 
to effect a cure, which it will do in many cases where the 
disease is not too far advanced. Experience has shown 
that serum has some curative properties, and an experi- 
enced person can generally tell when it is advisable to 
give it to a sick hog. 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 



185 



Many farmers and hog raisers administer the serum 
themselves. There is no reason why anyone cannot 
apply it successfully if he follows the few simple instruc- 
tions. All hog raisers should know where the serum is 
obtainable. In most states the State Veterinarian has 
charge of the sale of serum and controls its use. It is 
sold at so much per c.c, which ranges in price generally 
from «)4 to 1>2 cents per c.c. Full directions for the use 




Administering serum to prevent hog cholera. Courtesy R. D. 
Goodman of North Carolina, 
of the serum are also obtainable from the officer or in- 
stitution in charge of the sale of the serum. The dosage 
of serum generally varies according to the gross weight 
of the hog. The following are the dosages generally 
recommended : 

25-50 pounds 10-20 c. c. 

50-100 pounds 20-30 c. c. 

100-200 pounds 30-45 c. c. 

200-400 pounds 45-60 c. C. 

Over 400 pounds 60-80 c. c, according to weight 



186 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

For some time use has been made of the double treat- 
ment by which the hog is given an infection of hog 
cholera and the serum at the same time, resulting in a 
more or less permanent immunity to the disease. This 
method of immunization has been given a most thorough 
trial, and in most states is either now prohibited or ad- 
vised against on account of the resultant spreading 
of the disease and effects on the animal, many animals 
being more or less permanently stunted by the treatment. 
This brings up the question of the length of the immunity 
secured by the inoculation with scrum alone. It has been 
found that this is quite variable, dependent to a large ex- 
tent upon the natural susceptibility of the individual. 
In some cases the immunity will last but six weeks, while 
in others it will last as long as six months. Sows ad- 
vanced in pregnancy can safely be inoculated with the 
serum if proper precautions are taken. Many preventive 
measures and precautions are also a matter of actual ex- 
perience. When a herd becomes infected one must know 
how long to keep the herd immuned until the danger of 
cholera is past. That will depend largely on the rigidity 
of the sanitary precautions taken. 

Constipation. — Constipation is rather a common dis- 
ease in swine herds, especially where the hogs are fed on 
dry feeds. It is characterized by a dry, hard feces contain- 
ing but little moisture. It is indicative of disease rather 
than a disease itself. The treatment of the condition is 
simple. In mild cases dieting will soon bring about the 
proper condition. Dry feeds should be avoided and only 
sloppy and green feeds fed. The consumption of much 
water is desirable, and induced exercise assists in the 
recovery to normal condition. A small dose, from one 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 187 

to two ounces of castor oil, or two or three ounces of 
linseed oil, will often relieve the constipation, and in 
acute cases calomel at the rate of a grain per 25 pounds 
in weight should relieve the condition in a short while. 
Under the methods of swine growing v^hich we should 
adopt in w^hich grazing crops play an important role, 
trouble from this source becomes almost negligible. 

Diarrhea. — Diarrhea is a common symptom of many 
diseases affecting the digestive tract. In most cases it 
is due directly to an irritation, which may be brought 
about by poisons, or, as is more often the case, it may 
be due to a bacterial infection. In the case of young pigs 
it may assume the form of scours, and the discharge may 
be a grayish liquid, with an offensive odor. This form 
of scours is generally fatal in quite young pigs, but 
diarrhea can generally be controlled in older pigs and 
hogs. The disease is characterized by a gradual loss of 
appetite, sometimes by fever, and indisposition to ex- 
ercise, indications of pain and, above all, by the watery 
nature of the fecal discharge. Diarrhea may result from 
irritations due to intestinal worms. Indigestion, bacterial 
infection from putrid feeds, change from dry to green 
feeds and improper protection from the cold are other 
causes of diarrhea. The treatment consists in the re- 
moval of the cause. If the cause is another disease, the 
other disease should be treated. Light diet, purgatives 
of castor oil, nitrate of bismuth, opiates, formaldehyde 
and slaked lime may be indicated. Especially is the lime 
good where the cause is an acid irritation. 

Thumps — spasm of the diaphragm. — This is quite a 
common occurrence in pigs, and is the result of an irrita- 



188 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

tion of the phrenic nerves. Indigestion, especially over- 
loading of the stomach, intestinal parasites and lack of 
adequate exercise are some of the more common causes 
of the condition. The symptoms are marked. When 
standing the body will move forward with the shock of 
the contraction. When lying down the force of the 
spasm can plainly be seen on the side of the animal. The 
spasms occur with considerable regularity, but the con- 
tractions occur more often when the stomach is full. 
The treatment consists, first, in the removal of the cause. 
A vermifuge of turpentine, a half teaspoonful per 80- 
pound pig, followed by a dose of calomel, should be given. 
Exercise on pasture is beneficial, and the bowels should 
be regulated with laxatives and tonics. Tincture of 
opium is generally recommended to stop the contractions 
of the diaphragm. 

Excretory system. — The diseases of the kidneys and 
bladder are confined for the most part to inflammations. 
Congestions of the kidneys from an injury or from a 
poison are not uncommon in swine. Exposure is a cause 
of kidney and bladder trouble and the excretory organs 
are quite commonly affected by such diseases as swine 
plague and hog cholera. Germs may infect both the 
kidneys and bladder and give rise to irritations and 
inflammations. When the urine is retained for any length 
of time the fermentations release free ammonia, which 
irritates the mucous membranes with which it comes in 
contact. The symptoms of diseases of the excretory 
system are generally obscure. The appetite may be ir- 
regular, indications of pain may be manifested, the urine 
may be passed frequently in varying quantities, and it 
may be of high color. In some cases there is a retention 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 189 

of the urine. When the disease is advanced more general 
symptoms may become manifested, and death may result 
from uremic poisoning. The bowels must be kept open 
and frequent laxatives should be given. Home treatment 
in cases of diseases affecting the excretory system are 
generally not very satisfactory, and in most cases the 
treatment should be given under the direction of a com- 
petent veterinarian. 

Diseases of the locomotor organs. — Diseases affecting 
the organs of locomotion may be either due to physio- 
logical or morphological conditions. Nearly all diseases 
of locomotion manifest themselves by lameness. Thus 
when lameness occurs we should at once ascertain the 
location of the trouble and proceed to remove the cause. 
The more common causes of lameness are rheumatism, 
sore feet, stiff joints and weak legs. 

Rickets is a rather common disease, affecting the bones 
of the legs in particular. It is due to an insufficiency of 
mineral matter in the diet, and is generally easily cor- 
rected by the addition to the diet of such minerals as 
lime, phosphates and carbonates. Lack of exercise, 
crowded quarters, filth and poor feeding are common 
contributive causes. The disease may assume the form 
of a crumbling or fracturing of the bone without due 
cause, or it may assume the form of distortion in the 
extremities. 

Lameness from rheumatism may result from articular 
and muscular rheumatism. Frequently we find muscular 
rheumatism resulting as secondary to another disease. 
Overfeeding and exposure are two causes to which rheu- 
matism is generally attributed, but it may come from 
other sources, especially from diseases affecting the ex- 



190 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

cretory system. In the articular form there may be a 
swelling and stiffness of the joints. In the muscular 
form the muscles of the back are more commonly 
affected. The treatment is not very satisfactory. Com- 
fortable quarters, a laxative diet and regular and judi- 
cious feeding are valuable. 

Sore feet is due generally to an infection of the soft 
parts between the toes. If the disease is the result of 
confinement on hard pasture, the hogs should be placed 
on softer ground. In addition to removing the cause of 
the infection we should take means to destroy it. To 
do this the feet should be washed once a day in a 5 per 
cent solution of a coal tar dip. Another good remedy is 
to wash the feet daily in a saturated solution of copper 
sulphate. Above all, the animals affected should be kept 
out of the mud, mire and manure. 

Diseases of the nervous system. — There are several 
causes that will give rise to an inflammation or conges- 
tion of the brain, with its resultant effects of paralysis, 
epilepsy, apoplexy, blindness and deafness. Among these 
are over-heating, tumors or parasites, injuries, improper 
feeding, filth and exposure and infectious diseases. 

Apoplexy and paralysis are usually associated with 
inactivity. In the case of the former the condition is 
usually sudden and general, while in the case of paralysis 
the disease may be restricted to certain parts, and it may 
come on more slowly. A sunstroke is an apoplectic con- 
dition. In these diseases the cause should first be re- 
moved and the treatment applied according to the cause. 
In some instances recovery can be effected, but the best 
treatment is prevention, and the hog should not be placed 
under those conditions predisposing it to these diseases. 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 191 

Epilepsy is characterized by periodic convulsions, be- 
tween which the animal may appear normal or only 
slightly stupid. The tendency may be congenital, or it 
may result from an injury. In young pigs it may result 
from an irritation due to parasitic infection or from the 
cutting of teeth. Here again treatment consists in re- 
moval of the cause where it is known. Cathartics should 
be given. Cold water applied to the head of the animal 
may give temporary relief. 

Blind staggers is a symptom rather than a disease. 
Treatment is unsatisfactory, and unless the cause is 
known and can be rem.oved it is generally better to kill 
the afflicted animal. 

Diseases of the male reproductive organs. — While 
there are a few diseases of the reproductive organs or 
system of swine that occur frequently in the breeding 
herd, they art not nearly of the same importance as some 
other diseases. In the boar we find that there are several 
contributive causes to sterility, among the more im- 
portant being too high condition w^ith insufficient exer- 
cise, too much service and improper feeding. Sterility 
may result from an injury and may not be amenable to 
treatment, but many cases of sterility can be remedied 
by the removal of the cause. Medicines other than 
tonics are of little or no value. 

Among boars orchitis is not uncommon. This con- 
sists in the inflammation of one or both testes. It is 
generally the result of an injury or an infection. If the 
infection results in an abscess, removal of the diseased 
testicle is the quickest remedy. Medicinal treatment is 
of some value. Potassium iodide administered in doses 
twice daily for a week or 10 days may bring relief. Laxa- 



192 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

tives and light feeding, with local applications of iodine 
tincture or mild blisters, will assist in rapid recovery. 
Another disease in boars is that of foul sheath, in which 
an inflammation is set up in the sheath as a result of an 
accumulation of dirt. The prepuce will swell and some 
discharge may be noticed. Some local fever, painful 
urination, retention of the urine and bad odor may be 
found. The remedy is to place the hog on his back, wash 
out the prepuce thoroughly with warm water, making 
an incision if necessary, and keeping it free from infec- 
tion by washing daily with a disinfecting solution. 

Diseases of the female reproductive system. — Barren- 
ness in the sow is due largely to the same causes that 
bring about sterility in the male, and the treatment con- 
sists largely in removing the cause. High condition is 
perhaps the most common cause of barrenness in the 
sow. Closing of the os or entrance to the uterus, inflam- 
mation with an acid discharge, old age, and morphological 
conditions may result in barrenness. When a case shows 
up, the first thing to do is to provide for ample exercise, 
a reduction in condition if necessary, and if the periods 
do not occur the sow should be placed in the lot with 
the boar. If the sow comes into heat, but does not con- 
ceive, the trouble may be local. If an inflammation is 
present, it will have to be treated with disinfecting solu- 
tions until stopped and, if the uterus is closed, it may 
in most instances be opened. Most barrenness is due to 
improper feeding and management. 

Abortions may occur in sows from injuries or from 
infections. Crowding, exposure, over-heating, excite- 
ment, spoiled feeds and disease in general must be 
avoided with pregnant sows. Nothing can be done to 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 193 

prevent an abortion after it once starts, so that the only 
cure is prevention. The after treatment will depend on 
circumstances. 

Mammitis or garget results as an inflammation of the 
udder due to an over-supply of milk. Heavy milk supply, 
loss of all or a part of the litter, obstruction of a teat, in- 
juries and infections may be causative factors. Equal 
parts of belladonna and gum camphor mixed with two 
parts of vaseline make an excellent ointment for such 
cases. Bathing with hot water is of value and with- 
drawal of the milk and massaging of the udder will as- 
sist in overcoming the inflammation. 

Diseases of the respiratory system. — Nasal catarrh is 
a rather common disease of swine that corresponds with 
a cold in the head in people. The symptoms and treat- 
ment are similar. Over-heating, chilling and irritations 
are common causes. The inflammation and infection may 
extend to the pharynx and larynx, causing the disease 
technically known as pharyngo-laryngitis. The bowels 
should be kept open and health conditions carefully 
looked after. The same conditions that cause nasal 
catarrh and pharyngo-laryngitis may lead to bronchitis 
or inflammation of the bronchial tubes, which disease is 
nearly always accompanied by an infection. Here again 
prevention is the best and most satisfactory treatment. 
iTomfortable quarters, light diet and general good care 
are usually a more effective treatment than medicines. 

Neglected bronchitis frequently terminates in pneu- 
monia. Fat hogs are more subject to this disease than 
thinner ones, and the chances of recovery are greater in 
thin ones. The general symptoms are fairly character- 
istic — fever, loss of appetite, depressed spirits, coughing, 



194 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

exhaustion and inflammation of the visible mucous mem- 
branes. Preventive measures are very important. Care- 
ful nursing, comfortable quarters and light diet are about 
as valuable as medicines. Counter irritants, stimulants 
and tonics may be used to advantage in the convalescent 
period. The bowels should be kept open at all times. 
Pneumonia is generally associated with pleurisy, an in- 
flammation of the serous membrane lining the chest 
cavity. The causes, symptoms and treatment are similar 
to those for pneumonia. 

Another disease of swine affecting primarily the res- 
piratory organs, but often extending to other parts, such 
as the intestines, brain and lymph glands, is tuberculosis. 

It is not very common in the South, but is probably 
becoming more prevalent. The common source of in- 
fection in swine is from cattle by way of the skim milk, 
manure, or through the eating of offal from slaughtered 
tubercular cattle. Pulmonary tuberculosis is accom- 
panied by symptoms similar to those manifested in cases 
of chronic bronchitis. Methods of possible infection and 
predisposing causes should be removed, and all suspected 
animals and those known to have the disease should be 
isolated or destroyed. 

Swine plague is another disease of swine affecting the 
respiratory system. It is often confused with both hog 
cholera and pneumonia. It occurs in both chronic and 
acute forms. The preventive treatment is about the same 
as that employed in hog cholera and pneumonia. This 
disease does not occur often in the southern states. 

Canker or sore mouth (necrotic stomatitis). — This 
infectious disease is fairly common and frequently oc- 
curs in light form, when the animal may recover without 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 195 

the knowledge of the herdsman. It affects the mouth 
and adjacent parts and may extend to the nostrils, and 
even to the stomach and intestines in severe cases. It 
is caused by a specific micro-organism (bacillus nc- 
crophorus). Congestion of the lips and gums, salivaton 
and the occurrence of necrotic patches in the later stages 
are primary symptoms. A foul odor is often present. 
Diarrhea, prostration and emaciation occur in advanced 
stages, followed by death in from two to six weeks. 
Where it occurs the infected animals should be isolated 
and their mouths or heads dipped daily in a 2 per cent 
solution of creolin or good coal tar dip. 

Urticaria or nettle rash. — Concurrent with the above- 
described disease there frequently occurs a general herd 
infection of urticaria or nettle rash. This disease arises 
from skin irritations resulting from various causes, and 
is characterized by skin eruptions on various parts of the 
body, especially on the inside of the thighs, the belly, 
between the forearms and back of the ears. Cleanliness, 
sanitation, disinfection and prevention of skin irritations 
are the best methods of prevention. Non-irritating dips, 
such as five gallons of water to which has been added 
six ounces of cresylic acid compound, U. S. P., or a two per 
cent solution of a good coal tar disinfectant should be used. 

Eczema. — Conditions under which some hogs are kept 
render them susceptible to a chronic skin disease char- 
acterized by inflammation and tenderness, followed by 
watery vesicles or blisters, which change to pustules. 
The disease can easily be prevented by sanitation, disin- 
fection and proper use of sanitary hog wallows contain- 
ing a weak solution of coal tar dip. 



196 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Sun scald. — A disease similar to the above occurs to 
some extent in the South known as sun scald. About the 
only difference between sun scald and pitch mange or 
eczema is in the cause. White hogs seem much predisposed 
to the disease. The symptoms are about the same as 
given for eczema except that parts exposed to the sun 
are more often affected. Shade and general good care 
in sanitation and disinfection are the main precautions 
necessary to successfully control the trouble. 

Parasitic diseases of swine. — In addition to those dis- 
eases of swine caused by bacteria and morphological con- 
ditions, we have those caused by worms and lice. Fully 
90 per cent of losses in swine are associated with 
parasitic infection. Roughly, the parasitic diseases of 
swine may be classified into those caused by worms and 
those caused by lice and mites. 

Worms. — Among the diseases of swine caused by 
worms those affecting the alimentary tract are more 
numerous and important. The large thorn-head worms 
are found wherever the secondary host, May beetles, are 
found. The males are from 2 to 4 inches in length, and 
the females may attain a length of 12 inches. As a rule 
the worm is round, and the anterior end bears a number 
of recurved booklets, to serve as an attachment to the 
wall of the intestines. The attachment may give rise to 
irritation and possible rupture, resulting in peritonitis 
and death. 

Another very important worm aflfecting the alimentary 
tract is the large, round worm, known as Ascaris Suis. 
The females often attain a length of 12 inches. The worm 
is white, tapering off to a point at each end, segmented, 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 197 

and the eggs are laid and passed out to be reconsumcd 
without an intermediate host. The distribution of this 
worm is most extensive, and but few herds are entirely 
free. They mostly inhabit the small intestines, but fre- 
quently penetrate the gall duct, and even enter the liver. 
A few worms do not cause serious results. When pres- 
ent in quantity, they cause indigestion, liver diseases, 
progressive emaciation and occasionally convulsions. 
This is one of the most troublesome worms affecting 
swine and must be provided against if serious damage 
is to be avoided. 

The pin worm is a small white worm more commonly 
inhabiting the large intestines. It is shaped similar to 
the Ascaris, is white or grayish in color and about a 
half inch in length. These worms never do serious dam- 
age unless present in extremely large quantities, when 
intestinal indigestion may result. 

Another less important intestinal worm is the whip 
worm. They attach themselves to the wall of the intes- 
tines and may give rise to irritations in this way. 

Trichinosis. — This small round worm has the adult 
stage in the intestinal tract and the larval stages in the 
muscular tissues. It is supposed that the hogs become 
infected by eating rats and slaughter-house offal con- 
taining the cysts of the worm, growth to maturity taking 
place in the intestines. Copulation and reproduction take 
place to liberate numerous embryos which penetrate the 
intestines and migrate to the various tissues. This dis- 
ease is communicable to man, and care must be taken 
not to eat infected pork. The medical measures are 
about the same as those recommended for other intestinal 
worms, but the preventive measures must be from a 



198 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Special angle owing to the methods necessary for in- 
fection. 

Treatment for intestinal worms. — Preventive treatment 
is to be used in preference to medicinal, although the lat- 
ter must be resorted to at times. It is very important to 
keep the hogs healthy and in a thrifty, growing condition. 
General sanitary and precautionary measures must be 
used in preventing infection and spread of these parasites. 
When an infection occurs medicines have to be resorted 
to. Many vermifuges and vermicides have been recom- 
mended. Turpentine, santonin, calomel and areca nut 
are all excellent for use with swine. Doses of a teaspoon- 
ful of turpentine, eight grains of santonin, five grains of 
calomel, or three drachms of areca nut are common 
doses. These should be followed by a physic of castor 
oil and repeated in two or three weeks if necessary. In 
addition to the above it is always well to keep before the 
hogs a worm preventive mixture such as recommended 
on page 146. 

Lung worms. — The lung worms are present in most 
localities and are described by Craig as the most common 
parasite of swine. When conditions are favorable for its 
development, they may become present in such large 
numbers as to lead to bronchitis, pneumonia and other 
lung diseases. The lung worm is about the size of a 
thread and ranges up to nearly 2 inches in length. The 
chief source of infection seems to be by the breathing of 
dusty air bearing the eggs or encystments. The method 
of prevention and treatment is summed up in sanitation, 
proper feeding and proper management. 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 199 

Kidney worms. — This worm infests the kidneys and 
the fat surrounding them. Dr. Carey states that from 
90 to 95 per cent of all hogs over one year of age in the 
South are affected with this worm. No satisfactory treat- 
ment is known, and preventive measures, such as recom- 
mended for other worms, should be used to keep the dis- 
ease in check. 

The hog louse. — This common external blood-sucking 
parasite is the largest louse known. It is the most com- 
mon external parasite of swine. It affects unthrifty swine 
more often than the thrifty ones. The female cements 
the ova or nits to the bristles. These hatch in from 10 
to 14 days. These lice suck the blood, irritate the skin 
in puncturing it, and it is possible that they may trans- 
mit infectious diseases. 

Another parasite which burrows in the skin is the one 
that causes mange, of which there are two or more kinds. 
The most common is the sarcoptic mange. The adults 
are scarcely visible to the naked eye. The rapidity with 
which these parasites can multiply is almost beyond con- 
ception. The disease may become serious if not properly 
treated, resulting in loss of hair, thickening of the skin, 
cracking of the skin and soreness. The treatment of this 
disease consists in the application of oils and sulphur. 
Another form of mange known as the demodectic or red 
mange occurs rarely and is incurable. 

Treatment for external parasites should be both pre- 
ventive and curative. The dipping vat is the most valu- 
able remedy. Dipping once every 10 days for three dip- 
pings, or longer if necessary, and each month thereafter, 
with a good coal tar or lime sulphur dip should soon con- 
trol these parasites. In order to make the work effective 



200 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



it must be accompanied by adequate sanitary and dis- 
infecting measures. Thorough rubbing with machine or 
other oils will often effect a cure. 

Surgical diseases. — The expert herdsman should be 
able to perform the minor and simple surgical operations 




Cement wallowing hole used to control lice on Broadacre Farms, 
Bonifay, Fla. 

necessary in the routine care of the herd and be able to 
understand and appreciate the procedure where more 
skill is required. He should understand the necessity 
for asepsis and the conditions favoring infection. Above 
all, the herdsman should be able to perform such simple 
operations as castration, treatment of some cases of 
hernia, abscesses, cuts and bruises. 

Castration. — This is a very simple operation that is 
performed by many who do not take the pains and pre- 
cautions with it they should. If properly done, there is 
practically no danger from complications, but as usually 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 201 

done abscesses, tumors, hernia, peritonitis and the like 
frequently result. The most favorable age for the opera- 
tion is just before weaning time, when the setback caused 
by the operation will be reduced to a minimum. Castra- 
tion can, however, be done successfully at any age. In 
the operation sanitary precautions are important. Hot 
and wet weather should be avoided. Filthy pens, wal- 
lows and other sources of infection should be eliminated. 
A good plan is to cut out feed for 12 hours before the 
operation. Confine the pigs to a small pen and catch one 
at a time without excitement or heating them up. The 
one that is to perform the operation should see to it that 
he is provided with a sharp knife or sharp knives. In ad- 
dition he should have a 5% solution of a coal tar dis- 
infectant, some cotton pledgets, some suturing thread 
and a needle or two if there be many to castrate. The 
scrotum should be thoroughly washed two or three times 
with the disinfectant, the knife should be disinfected, 
and with one stroke an incision should be made on either 
side of the median line parallel to it sufficiently large to 
permit the squeezing out of the testicle. In pigs the cord 
is generally severed by a jerk, in shotes by scraping 
into, and in boars by the use of the emasculator. When 
the pigs are of any size it may be well to ligature the 
cord before severing. 

After the operation is performed care should be taken 
to see that the incision comes to the lowest part of the 
scrotal sac to prevent an accumulation of pus. In cool 
weather it will probably need no further treatment aside 
from washing with the disinfecting solution. In warm 
weather when the flies are bad some make a practice of 
applying pine tar to the wound. If a hemorrhage per- 



202 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

sists it may be treated by washing out with hot water, by 
crushing or ligating the blood vessel or by packing for 
twenty-four hours with absorbent cotton. Cases of rup- 
ture due to an enlarged inguinal canal require more skill 
than is ordinarily possessed by the herdsman, but some 
develop sufficient skill to handle such cases. 

Tumors are rather common as a complication follow- 
ing castration. When present they must be dissected 
out. Abscesses are treated in a similar manner, and the 
main thing is to keep them open and washed out with 
a disinfectant. In some cases only one testicle comes 
down in the scrotal sac, or neither may come down. Such 
cases are called cryptorchids and require an abdominal 
operation, in which skill is required. 

Spaying. — A few years ago spaying was practiced to 
some extent in swine herds, but now but few are spayed. 
This comes largely from the fact that a little more skill 
and care are required in the operation than in castration, 
and from the fact that we now market our sow pigs in- 
tended for slaughter at an early age. This operation is 
justified only in rare cases, and should be avoided as 
much as possible. 

Hernia or rupture. — There are three kinds of hernia or 
rupture— umbilical, scrotal and ventral. All involve that 
condition in which a part of the intestines or omentum 
pass through the abdominal wall into a pocket in the skin. 
The umbilical hernias so common in pigs are generally 
congenital, although they may result from an injury. The 
scrotal hernias result from an overly large inguinal canal. 
Ventral hernias result from protrusion of the intestines 
as a result of a tear or injury in the abdominal wall. 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 203 

Ruptures are more or less dangerous and difficult to 
handle, and should only be treated by someone skilled 
in handling such cases. 

Abscesses and tumors. — The location, nature and con- 
ditions will, to a large measure, determine the treatment 
indicated in the case of an abscess or tumor. Abscesses 
on the exterior should be opened if not already so. Prior 
to opening they should be brought to a head by fomenta- 
tions or blisters. After opening they should be washed 
out daily with a 2 per cent solution of coal tar dip so 
long as is necessary. Provision should be made to pre- 
vent reinfection. Tumors are more difficult to handle than 
abscesses as a rule. Their growth can generally be 
checked by two or three treatments of potassium iodide. 
After they become encapsulated they can be dissected 
out if exposed. 

Prolapsus of the anus. — This condition is met with oc- 
casionally and may or may not recover of its own accord. 
It consists in a protrusion from the anus of a portion of 
the rectal intestines. The treatment will depend on the 
conditions. The protruding part can be cut off and the 
edges sutured together at the anus. Where practical the 
parts should be washed with astringent solutions and 
replaced. Hogs properly looked after and fed are seldom 
afflicted with this condition. 

Cuts and bruises. — All wounds, cuts and exposed sur- 
faces should be cleaned and disinfected, the jagged edges 
cut off and hydrogen peroxide applied followed by an 
application of turpentine, camphor or arnica ointment. 
In addition to this the healing can frequently be hastened 



204 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

by a dusting with powdered alum or iodoform. The 
wounds should be washed and treated daily and great 
care taken to prevent infection. Bruises are to be treated 
slightly different. In the treatment of bruises hot 
fomentations, ice packs, arnica, camphor, stimulating 
liniments and lead acetate are indicated according to con- 
ditions. All severe bruises should receive prompt and 
regular attention. 

Sanitation and disease prevention. — Nothing is of 
greater importance in the control of disease than sanita- 
tion and disease prevention. Fully nine-tenths of the dis- 
ease that occurs in our swine herds is preventable. Dis- 
ease prevention consists in proper methods of breeding, 
feeding and management. Much of the disease we have 
is due to improper feeding. Pure foods are as important 
to the health of swine as they are to the health of men. 
The foods must be more than pure, the rations must be 
properly balanced, not necessarily so much as the rela- 
tion of the nutrients is concerned, but so far as quality, 
quantity and suitability for the purpose are concerned. 
Not only must the food supply be looked after, but pure 
water must be present in abundance, and provision must 
be made to keep it cool, clean and free from contamina- 
tion. The hogs must also be provided with suitable shel- 
ter in winter from the cold and wet and in summer from 
the heat and rains. 

Disinfection. — Tn order to ward off disease it is nec- 
essary that precautions be taken to destroy disease germs. 
Especially when a disease of an infectious nature has 
existed on premises, efforts should be made to destroy 
the germs and their hiding places. The agents to be used 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 205 

in the disinfection of houses, sheds, lots, pens, etc., will 
depend on several factors, chief among which are the 
organism and the material or places in which it exists. 
A 1 per cent solution of corrosive sublimate is very effec- 
tive, but its poisonous nature renders its use more or less 
undesirable. Chloride of lime is probably the most valu- 
able, the least poisonous, and least expensive disinfecting 
agent we have, when used at the rate of five ounces per 
gallon of water. This is applied by spraying the infected 
parts or premises. All loose litter and rubbish likely to 
be infected should be burned. 

In addition to the cleaning up and disinfection of 
premises proper disposition must be made of the bodies 
of hogs that have died of disease. These can be either 
buried or burned. In either case the work should be com- 
plete. In burying, the top of the carcass should not be 
nearer than four feet to the top of the ground. A good 
plan is to sprinkle some chloride of lime over the carcass 
after placing it in the ground. When the carcasses can 
be burned it is best. Fat hog carcasses burn fairly easy. 
A good plan is to place the carcass on a stump and pile 
brush about it to start the fire. Where brush piles are 
available hogs can frequently be burned by placing them 
on top of the pile and firing. Where wood is not plenti- 
ful a carcass can be burned at little expense and trouble 
by digging a trench and placing supporting iron bars 
across, and then by placing the carcass on the bars and 
burning wood beneath. As soon as the fat starts drip- 
ping the carcass will usually burn from then on of its 
own accord. 

In disinfection work and prevention of infection care 
must always be taken to see that the hogs do not have 



206 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

an Opportunity at infection. One of the most neglected 
sources of infection is the barnyard manure pile. Dirty 
and filthy lots with stagnant water, old mud wallows 
and outhouses are frequent sources of infection and dis- 
ease germ breeding grounds. 

Hog wallows. — A clean wallow is a source of comfort 
and health to the hog. The average farm hog wallow 
is, however, not kept clean, and instead of being a source 
of health they often become a breeding and distributing 
place for disease germs. A good concrete hog wallow 
can be kept clean and a little kerosene or coal tar dip 
added to the water occasionally will materially assist in 
killing the lice. 

Dipping vats. — A very practical means contributing 
to the general health of the swine herd is the dipping vat. 
It consists essentially in a tank of special design into 
which a dipping solution is placed and through which 
the hogs are driven. Where feasible a dipping vat made 
of concrete is most satisfactory. The shape of the vat 
should be such that a hog falls into it at one end and 
walks out at the other. The arrangement of the pens, 
chutes, drain pipes and dripping boards are dependent 
on local conditions. The vat should be deep enough that 
the hog will be completely submerged when he first falls 
in. Experience in various instances has resulted in a 
general agreement as to the best size for a dipping vat. 
An inside top length of 8 feet, top width of 24 inches, and 
bottom width of 20 inches are very good dimensions. The 
end of the vat where the hog enters should be perpen- 
dicular, and the end where he walks out should be slant- 
ing, with corrugations to prevent slipping. 



SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 207 

In the construction of a concrete dipping vat the ex- 
cavation should be dug 8 inches larger than the dimen- 
sions given above, which will allow for a 4-inch wall. 
The grouting should be placed first on the bottom and on 
the incline. The inside forms should then be put up, 
using the dirt as the outside forms. Reinforcements of 
woven wire can be used to strengthen the vat, but it is 
unnecessary. A 1 :2 :4 mixture should be used for the 
grouting and a 1 :2 mixture for the facing. Anyone 
contemplating the construction of a vat should secure 
some of the excellent bulletins and other publications 
devoted to the subject. Most all of the state veteri- 
narians and State Agricultural Extension Departments 
are equipped to give instructions and information along 
this line and in many instances they can furnish a limited 
amount of immediate supervision. 

Dipping solutions. — There are many effective solutions 
that can be used in dipping vats for treating lice and 
mange. Crude oil, lubricating or engine oil, or kerosene 
to which some sulphur has been added, when placed on 
top of the water in the vat, makes a fairly good dip. A 
mixture of 8 pounds of fresh lime, 24 pounds of 
flowers of sulphur and 100 gallons of water makes a 
large quantity of good disinfectant when properly pre- 
pared. The lime should be slaked with enough water to 
form a thick paste, with which the sulphur should be well 
mixed. Twenty-five or 30 gallons of water are then 
added and the whole boiled for at least an hour. Water 
sufficient to make 100 gallons of dip is then added. This 
dip gives the best results when used warm, although it 
is nearly as efifective used cold. In addition to the home- 
made dips there are several excellent commercial dips 



208 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

containing coal tar derivatives. Of course, the same 
solutions that are used in the dipping vats may be used 
in the wallows, but they should only be used in diluted 
form. The job is usually not so thorough in the case of 
the wallow as with the vat. 

The hog oiler. — In recent years a number of new de- 
vices have been, placed on the market designed to assist 
in killing lice on hogs by means of an application of oil 
to the skin. These have proven quite valuable. They do 
not take the place of the dipping vat on the hog farm, 
however. In principle these oilers have a reservoir for 
holding the crude oil, with a feeding arrangement so that 
the hog rubs on some part of the machine and the part 
of the hog rubbed receives a coating of the oil, which 
will kill all of the lice it comes in contact with. The 
same results can be secured by tying old grain sacks 
around rubbing posts and saturating with oil or by pour- 
ing the oil in the wallows, but these methods are a little 
more wasteful of the oil than are the patented devices. 



CHAPTER IX 

MARKETING 

Marketing. — Regardless of the phase of the pork in- 
dustry in which one is primarily interested, it is quite 
essential that he carefully consider the marketing end 
if profits are to be expected. He is naturally a producer 
and must be prepared to sell his products. Growers of 
swine generally fall into one of two classes, depending 
on their source of profit. The hog grower or the pork 
producer is the man whose principal product is fat hogs 
for making pork. The swine breeder makes a business 
of breeding pure-bred swine, to be used either in the 
breeding of other pure-bred swine or to be used in pork- 
producing herds. Of course, in so far as the marketing 
end is concerned, the market producer of swine and the 
breeder of pure-bred swine bear a close relationship to 
each other. The market producer is dependent on the 
breeder to a large extent to keep up the perfection and 
standards of his herd. The breeder is largely dependent 
on the market producer for his sales of breeding stock. 
In many herds the owner is both breeder and market 
hog producer, which may be the ideal arrangement. In 
either case it is most important that every man engaged 
in the breeding or growing of swine closely follow the 
market and its demands in order to produce that type 
which sells to the best advantage. The marketing of 
pure-bred swine is distinct from the marketing of fat 
hogs and should receive separate consideration. 



210 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

Marketing of pure-bred swine. — There is a demand 
and market for pure-bred swine, but finding a purchaser 
is costly and a large advertising expense seems unavoid- 
able. The two principal ways of advertising are by using 
the advertising space of farm papers and by going to the 
expense and trouble of showing. In many cases the 
breeder himself must attend the shows and sales in order 
to keep up his acquaintance with other breeders and 
swine growers and to keep posted on the types most 
highly prized and sought after. With the small breeder 
in particular does the cost of advertising come high. 
Combination and consignment sales will, of course, re- 
duce the expense of selling and they are of special benefit 
to the small producer. The widely scattered small 
breeders are the ones that will really do the most good, 
and the ideal way will be, of course, when all farmers 
produce pure breds or nearly pure breds. 

Shipping pure-bred swine. — One of the principal things 
in the marketing of pure-bred swine that does not con- 
cern the producer of pork hogs is that of proper shipping. 
In the case of pure-bred swine shipments are gen- 
erally made by express with one or two pigs at a time, 
while in the case of swine intended for use as pork the 
shipments are usually made in quantity, generally in 
carload lots by freight. 

The art of shipping pure-bred swine comes only from 
experience. Care must be taken to make the crates light 
but strong, provision must be made to see that the hogs 
are comfortable and do not have a chance to hurt them- 
selves, and to see that ways and means are ofifered for 
feeding and watering if they are to go any distance. 
When a sow and pigs are to be shipped, the problem be- 



MARKETING 211 

comes more complicated. If the distance is not over two 
or three hundred miles the sow can be shipped in one 
crate and the pigs in another. Where the shipment is 
farther the sow and pigs can be shipped in the same 
crate if it is of a special design. In the shipping of breed- 
ing swine there are other considerations not met with in 
the case of market hogs. The matter of registration 
papers has to be looked after, the inoculation against 
cholera and other health precautions are frequently dif- 
ferent from those for hogs intended for slaughter. 

Profits from pork production. — There are two factors 
controlling to a large extent the profits to be made from 
the production of pork. One of these is the cost of pro- 
duction and the other is the net sales. We are naturally 
interested in producing at least possible cost to give us 
a greater selling margin. So far as the selling end is 
concerned, we are especially interested in the gross sales 
and the costs incidental to making the sales. The dif- 
ference between this net sale figure and the cost of pro- 
duction is the net profit from the operation. As a rule 
the market value can be approximated more closely than 
the cost of production, since the market value is in- 
fluenced by fewer factors. The market value is almost 
entirely dependent on the supply and demand and upon 
the costs of marketing. 

Factors influencing cost of production. — The cost of 
production is dependent on both economic and local con- 
ditions. Of the economic conditions influencing the cost 
of production we have the market value of the land 
and equipment, interest on the investment in other than 
land and equipment, and the natural adaptability of the 



212 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

farm for pork production. Among the local conditions 
influencing the cost of production we have as the most 
important the rate and cost of gains, the cost of main- 
taining a breeding herd, and the degree to which the hogs 
are grown or fattened before marketing. Under the first 
of these local conditions we might include the cost of 
feed, the cost of labor, the kinds of feed and the value 
of the manures produced. Under the last heading, the 
degree of condition and growth, we might include the 
breeding, which involves type and quality. 

The lard type of hog. — The predominating type on the 
markets of the entire country is the American or lard 
type of hog, which has been developed largely as the 
type best suited to Corn Belt conditions. The type has 
been to a large extent adopted in its entirety by the 
South, although we are best equipped for the production 
of an intermediate type between the fat or lard hog and 
the bacon type, with the ideal approaching the lard type 
rather than the bacon hog. The hogs from the southern 
farms do not average as fat as the hogs from the Corn 
Belt, and the indications are that the hogs coming from 
southern farms will never average as fat as hogs coming 
from the Corn Belt farms. This will come about nat- 
urally from a more extensive use of grazing crops, the 
greater economy of production of lean over fat, and as 
a result of climatic conditions. 

Bacon types for special markets. — In pork-packing 
establishments the carcasses are examined by experts, 
who determine which carcasses will make good breakfast 
bacon. Only a few are found that will make first-class 
bacon. It often happens that a hog of one of the lard 



MARKETING 213 

breeds will make good bacon, owing to individual pe- 
culiarities, or to the influence of feeding, or both. But 
by raising the bacon type of hog and feeding properly, 
nearly every animal will make good bacon, and if there 
is a proper market accessible, or if the bacon is intended 
for family use, the raising of such hogs may become de- 
sirable and profitable. It is only in a very rare instance 
that the use of a strictly bacon breed of swine is to be 
recommended under southern conditions, for, as has been 
pointed out before, the ideal southern type will more 
nearly resemble the lard type rather than the bacon type. 

Marketing finished pork. — The establishment of pork- 
packing plants in many towns and cities in the South 
is one of the most striking developments at present along 
the line of marketing swine products. Steady and con- 
stant markets will result as a natural sequence, and the 
marketing end of the swine business will not be so diffi- 
cult in the future as in the past. It is the plan of these 
packing plants to take care of any excess production over 
immediate demands of the local butchers. A great many 
farmers do not raise enough pork for their own use, or 
else they raise it but sell it and buy fresh and cured pork 
for several times what they sell their own for. This 
failure to produce a supply of pork for home consump- 
tion is a loss to be regretted. We should first produce 
enough pork for home consumption and then have some 
to market, according to the emphasis we place on pork 
as a source of income. 

Seasonal demands of the market. — One factor which 
the producer of pork must take into consideration, es- 
pecially if he is supplying the demands of the local mar- 



214 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

ket, is the influence which the season may have upon 
the demand for pork. This applies especially to fresh 
pork. As a rule the consumption of fresh pork is much 
greater in the colder than in the warmer months. The 
price will generally average over 10 per cent greater for 
the colder or winter months. In addition to this, the 
consumer in the winter months seeks pork with more fat 
than in the summer months. This influence of the sea- 
sonal demands of the markets is of special importance to 
the small producer, especially the one who markets 
locally for home consumption. If a producer is supply- 
ing hogs to one of the central markets, it will generally 
be found that the demand is fair the year through. 
Fortunately, those seasons of the year in which pork is 
least in demand are the same months in which it is more 
difficult to fit hogs for the market. Later in the year, 
when the demands for fresh fat pork begin to improve, 
there is an abundance of forage crops admirably suited 
for fitting hogs for slaughter. 

Pork producers should study the market. — Producers 
of pork should study the market in order that they may 
know what to produce that will bring the highest prices. 
It is very essential that they visit the market occasionally 
and familiarize themselves with the different market 
classes and grades. They could then interpret market 
quotations and know better what their hogs should bring, 
if placed on the market at any particular time. Producers 
should keep posted on market conditions, either through 
a good market paper or through the letters of commis- 
sion firms, who advise their clients as to market condi- 
tions daily or weekly as the case may be. By continually 
keeping up with the market one is frequently enabled to 



MARKETING 215 

realize a greater profit than when the hogs are blindly 
thrown on the market, as they are in many cases. 

Produce what the market demands. — All those interested 
in pork production are in the last analysis dependent 
upon the demands of the ultimate consumer. We must, 
therefore, learn what he desires, for if we have something 
that is wanted there will be no trouble to sell it. We 
must recognize that there are different kinds of pork. 
What the ultimate consumer wants is pork that is tender, 
juicy, palatable, and with as little waste as possible in 
cooking. It must also present an attractive appearance 
to sell well. The tenderness, juiciness and palatability 
depend largely upon cooking. Of course not all of our 
pork is sold over the block to be used as fresh pork, but 
a very large portion of it is made up into cured pork 
products, such as bacon, hams, shoulders, white or dry 
salt meat and various canned and smoked products. In 
general, these also must possess the qualities demanded 
in fresh pork to command the best prices. 

Change in market demands. — An inspection of the 
kinds of hogs coming onto southern markets today as 
compared with ten years ago shows a marked difference. 
Ten years ago the percentage of swine with improved 
breeding predominating was much smaller than at pres- 
ent. They were generally a year or more of age, and 
the scrub and unimproved swine, of course, had no great 
size. Today, however, we find the majority of the hogs 
coming to the market show some evidence of breeding. 
The present types are the early-maturing types, and a 
large percentage are under one year of age. The hog 
in greatest demand seems to weigh in the neighborhood 



216 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

of 150 to 175 pounds, and pigs, when in good condition, 
are becoming much more popular than formerly. 

Most desirable age for marketing. — The most desirable 
age at which to market is usually the earliest age at 
which the hog reaches that stage of maturity and fatten- 
ing Avhen it is suited for the making of pork. The most 
desirable age is dependent to a large extent upon the 
time of year the pigs are born and upon the crops grown 
for fattening. Early spring pigs are generally best mar- 
keted in the early fall at eight or nine months of age. 
Late spring pigs are generally marketed in late fall or 
during the fore part of the next year, at which time they 
will be ten months or a year of age. Fall pigs should be 
marketed in the summer or early fall. If they come early 
in the fall they may be marketed in summer, while if 
they come later they are generally at the proper age and 
condition for marketing very late the following summer 
or early fall at from nine to eleven months of age. It is 
rarely advisable to market before eight months or later 
than twelve months of age, and all else being equal, the 
earlier the better. One is controlled in marketing not 
alone by size and age of the pig and condition of the 
market, but primarily by the feed supply. 

Most desirable size for marketing. — The most desir- 
able size for marketing will depend on the time of year 
and the market. The market will usually take heavier 
hogs during colder months than during the warmer 
months. At a large packing center the size is not of 
such great consequence, for there is always a demand 
for every size of hog. It has been found, however, that 
the size that is in greatest demand on the central mar- 



218 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

kets is that size averaging about 180 to 200 pounds. For 
home slaughtering purposes this is also a very satisfac- 
tory size. In the w^inter months a heavier weight may 
be used to advantage, and in summer a lighter w^eight is 
readily salable. 

The economy of early marketing. — The producer of 
pork must continually bear in mind the advantages to be 
derived from early marketing. The gains are made at a 
greater expense as the hog grows older; the longer 
one keeps a hog the longer he has to maintain him or 
supply him with maintenance feed, that feed which makes 
no gain, but which is necessary for the continuation of 
the animal's life. Thus, in order to minimize this main- 
tenance cost and to produce the gains at the lowest cost, 
we should aim to place on maximum gains at the earliest 
age possible, in order that the production may be the 
most economical. 

Finishing for market. — While the growth process had 
best not be allowed to slacken from the time it is started 
until the hogs are marketed, it is often not advisable to 
try to make the maximum fat production from the start. 
It is easily possible to arrange for ample fattening feeds 
to come on in the summer and fall of the year. A few 
of these are of such a nature that they will keep over 
through early spring, but there is a decided dearth of 
fattening feeds from the time spring opens up until mid- 
summer, or until the early cowpeas or corn come on. 
Of course one can feed corn or other concentrates during 
that season when fattening feeds are scarce, but so far 
as practical the fattening should be done in the fields with 
a minimum of lot feeding. Crops suitable to finish hogs 



MARKETING 219 

for the market in the field must be provided for if the 
pork is to be produced in the most economical way. 

When to ship. — With a continually fluctuating market 
a producer is at a loss to know when it is the most 
opportune time to make a shipment. What the producer 
desires is, of course, to sell at the best figure possible. 
In this connection, where a producer ships to market 
there is one general rule that most successful shippers 
follow, and that is to ship on a rising rather than a de- 
clining market. Too many shippers wait too long and 
ship about the time the market breaks, and they realize 
less on their shipments than they would have earlier. 
The object should be, therefore, to ship early on a rising 
market before the bulk of the shipments are received. 

Preparing hogs for shipment. — Before loading a ship- 
ment of hogs they should be properly cared for so as to 
avoid excessive shrinkage in transit and insure arrival 
at the market in good order. Especially are hogs apt to 
shrink considerably if they go direct from a grazing 
patch containing succulent materials. Therefore, just 
before shipment, one should aim to feed them feeds that 
will stay with them, feeds not too heating or too con- 
centrated in nature. Good feeds for this purpose are 
corn and cob meal, crushed oats and ripe grain pasture. 
This grain feeding is also desirable, since it will give the 
hogs the appearance of having been grain-fed when the 
grain shows up in the droppings, and they will be less 
apt to be discriminated against. If the haul is very 
long, provision must be made for feeding and watering 
in transit. According to the present law, the railroad 
has to unload and feed after 28 hours in transit, but the 



220 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

shippers generally sign a release allowing of a longer 
limit of time so that the hogs reach the market before 
it is necessary to feed again. However, in case it is nec- 
essary to feed in transit corn alone should not be fed, 
especially in summer, on account of its heating qualities 
and the possibilities of indigestion due to the riding. A 
good dry mash of bran, crushed oats and corn is cooling 
and refreshing and is apt to get the hogs through in the 
best condition. During the hot weather hogs should 
leave the shipping point, where possible, during the late 
afternoon, and in most cases they will arrive at the mar- 
ket in the night, or early the next morning. 

Average carloads. — The number of hogs that can be 
shipped in a single car is dependent on several factors, 
among which are the size of the car, the size of the hogs, 
distance to be shipped, the kind of hogs, the kind of car, 
whether double or single deck, and the weather condi- 
tions. Extensive reports on railroad shipments and 
stockyard receipts show that in single-deck cars the 
number generally runs about 90 to 100 head for light 
hogs and from 150 to 175 for light hogs in double-decked 
cars. It is always better to have a car loaded too light 
than too heavy. 

Marketing. — The two principal ways of marketing 
hogs are selling to local buyers and shipping direct to a 
central market. There are advantages to both methods 
and the most advisable one will depend on circumstances. 
Frequently one can do better selling to local buyers even 
in quantity. That will all depend, however, on the con- 
dition of the market and the kinds and quantity of hogs 
one is marketing. 



MARKETING 221 

Marketing through local buyers. — Selling to the local 
buyer or shipper is one of the most feasible methods of 
marketing pork open to the farmer and small producer. 
The regular shipper is known on the market and can 
generally secure the best prices obtainable. Also, in sell- 
ing to the local buyer the risks from loss are lessened 
and the trouble is far less. If there is a decline in the 
market during transit, it is the shipper and not the grower 
that suffers. The shipper's long experience is always 
worth something, and the seller gets the benefit of that. 
Thus the local buyer can frequently be used to advan- 
tage, as the difference between the price he is able to pay 
and the probable price one would obtain by shipping 
direct is not sufficient to cover shrinkage, freight termi- 
nal and commission charges, and the risks of one sort 
and another that must be assumed. 

Shipping direct to the market. — This method of mar- 
keting has many distinct advantages, but it is accom- 
panied by risks. By this method the producer always 
gets the profit which might fall to the local buyer. This 
method of marketing gives the grower a chance to learn 
what the demands of the markets are. By learning this 
he can more intelligently and profitably cater to the de- 
mands of the market. He meets men from other sections 
and profits from their experiences. He also comes to know 
the commission men, learns the markets and obtains in- 
formation in general, which, when applied, will assist 
him in increasing profits. 

Co-operative shipping of swine. — This method of ship- 
ping is to be recommended and should be more exten- 
sively practiced. By this method the profits of the ship- 



MARKETING 223 

ping point buyer are eliminated. A co-operative shipping 
association in one state saves its shippers annually over 
$6,000, according to figures given out by the United 
States Department of Agriculture. These co-operative 
shipping associations are organized for the most part in 
connection w^ith other enterprises. Some handle in ad- 
dition to swine and other live stock, lumber, coal, grain, 
feed and farm implements. A iew handle live stock ex- 
clusively. The financial arrangement is generally for 
the shippers to share pro rata in costs and to pay the 
manager or shipper a flat rate per car of from $6 to $10 
for the first car and $5 each for additional cars on any 
one day. In some instances the fee may be put on 
the shipping-weight basis, the manager to receive from 
5 to 10 cents per hundredweight. The advantages of 
such a co-operative shipping arrangement are obvious. 
The railroads give better service in this way, better 
prices are usually obtained, one can make a shipment 
when he is ready regardless of the number he may have, 
the member does not have to deal with the local buyers, 
and these, with the other advantages offered, are suffi- 
cient to justify the existence of such an organization 
whenever a sufficient number of hogs are produced in 
a community. 

Lack of shipping facilities. — Under the present method 
of production the individual breeders and the different 
sections are not producing a sufficient number of swine 
to justify the most efficient methods of marketing. Even 
the railroads in the South do not handle shipments of 
swine with the same facility and satisfaction as in other 
sections where more are produced. They are rapidly 
overcoming this drawback, however, and as soon as swine 



224 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

are produced in greater quantities this will be one of the 
first of the serious handicaps to profitable marketing 
to be corrected. 

Early methods of transportation. — The early method 
of transportation of live stock in the South was by driv- 
ing. This method was extensively practiced up to the 
time of the war and for some time thereafter. In the 
earlier days this was the only feasible method of trans- 
portation. Even after the railroads traversed the country 
the necessary expense prohibited their use in the trans- 
porting of many droves of swine. Prior to 1850 the 
transportation of swine by any other method than driv- 
ing was almost unheard of. Driving routes to market 
points were generally selected where ample feed could 
be secured en route. The practice was to drive largely 
at night during hot weather. Where the distance to mar- 
ket was far, several days would be required, and by this 
method they could be taken to market at a considerable 
profit with little or no shrinkage. The driving of hogs 
has largely been superseded by hauling with wagons and 
by railroads, and in the future railway transportation of 
swine will be of a considerably greater extent than in 
the past. 

Stockyards. — At several central points in the South 
there are central markets at which there are stockyards 
to provide ample handling facilities for hogs. Markets 
of this kind are located at Augusta, Ga., Baltimore, Md., 
Oklahoma City, Okla., Ft. Worth, Tex., and at other 
points. Practically all of these stockyards are controlled 
by an incorporated company, with the stock held by 
various interests, generally railroads, packing companies 



MARKETING 225 

and live stock dealers holding the greater part of the 
stock. These stockyards are usually located out some 
distance from the city on account of cheaper land and 
better location for the packing plants that are nearly al- 
ways associated with the yards. The yards are usually 
laid out after the manner of a town site, with the various 
yards representing the blocks, and the driveways and 
alleys representing the streets. Packing plants and other 
buildings are generally near. Railway tracks usually 
run along the side of and through the yards. A central 
exchange building known as the live stock exchange is 
always present in the larger yards. The live stock ex- 
change is really an organization of the buyers and sellers 
and dealers that do business in the yards. Their pur- 
pose is to control and regulate trading. Either the stock 
exchange or the stockyards company prescribes all the 
rules under which stock enter the yards. They have fixed 
charges on the use of the yards, commissions, costs of 
feeds, switching charges, insurance, etc. The stockyard 
companies handle the stock after it reaches the yards 
and they do all of the weighing which the buyer pays 
for at a fixed rate per head. The dealers in the yards 
are usually divided into two classes — the buyers and 
sellers. The sellers are generally commission men. 
Methods of settlement vary somewhat, but they are 
usually on a cash basis and are made through local 
banks. 

Market costs. — When one has a car of hogs to be 
shipped, if he is the business man he should be, he will 
figure up all the attendant costs and figure the price his 
hogs should bring him. Fortunately, most of the costs 
incidental to xnarketing are fixed and are pretty well 



226 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

known, and the total costs may be figured quite closely. 
The freight charges are all well known and fixed. There 
may be some terminal charges, but these are also con- 
stant, then there may be yardage charges and commission 
charges, with possibly a few incidentals in the way of 
telegrams and telephone messages. These improved con- 
ditions make the business more profitable, and profits are 
almost guaranteed where certainties have displaced un- 
certainties to such a large extent. 

Commission houses. — Commission firms on the larger 
markets are a very necessary adjunct. They are special- 
ists in securing high prices. The stockyards company 
usually assigns pens or lots to each firm, and the firms 
then employ a force to see that their consignments re- 
ceive prompt attention in the way of rest, feed and water. 
Frequently they may receive a large number of cars of 
mixed stufY. They may take these and grade and classify 
them and secure appreciably better prices. Then they 
pay each consignor just what his hogs totaled, although 
they may have been sold in three or four different lots 
in order to secure a larger sum for the consignment. 
The live stock commission business on the southern mar- 
kets has not yet advanced to the same stage of develop- 
ment as on northern and western markets. When there 
are several commission firms, the particular one to be 
patronized will be largely a matter of taste. Some ship- 
pers occasionally split consignments and are thereby 
enabled to determine which firms secure the best prices. 
As soon as a good firm is found it is generally advisable 
to stick to them as long as they maintain their reputation, 
for they will be better able to advise and assist in mak- 
ing shipments at the most opportune time. 



MARKETING 227 

Live stock exchange. — On most of the large markets, 
especially those of the West and North, we find live stock 
exchanges, which serve a most useful purpose. They 
handle all the larger matters for the better interests of 
the shipper, stockyards company, packing houses, com- 
mission men and all interested parties. They decide such 
questions as dockage, post-mortem examinations, freight 
rates, insurance, and yard regulations and charges. Be- 
fore the development of the exchange the shipper was 
at the mercy of the larger buyers, who made prices and 
controlled the markets. The exchanges handle all dis- 
putes, guarantee security of property, and are beneficial 
in many ways. The live stock exchange is a necessary 
adjunct to any large market and its usefulness is only 
limited by the support given it. 

Market classifications. — Owing to the great variations 
that exist among the hogs that are shipped to any mar- 
ket, it has been found necessary to standardize and 
classify those of certain qualifications into certain classes 
and grades. These classifications are based to a very 
large extent upon weight, condition, age, sex, quality 
and utility, and we find each class and grade better 
adapted to some particular commercial purpose than any 
other class or grade. 

Market classes and grades of hogs. — Hogs that are 
sent to the market are classified into groups or classes 
according to the specific commercial purposes to which 
they are best adapted. These classes are numerous when 
the market receipts are large. When a small market is 
concerned the number of classes and grades is small. 
In order to give some idea of the extent of market clas- 



228 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

sifications, a complete classification, such as one might 
expect to find upon a large specialized market, is given : 

1. Prime hogs 10. Heavy packing 

2. Good butcher 11. Rough heavy packing 

3. -Good butcher pigs 12. Throv^outs 

4. Light pigs 13. Pigs 

5. Heavy rough hogs 14. Boars 

6. Mixed packing 15. Stags 

7. Light pigs 16. Government 

8. Light light 17. Cripples 

9. Heavy shipping 

These classes are in turn divided into grades, w^hich 
indicate the degree of fitness of the animal for the specific 
commercial purpose w^hich has determined its class. The 
several grades that m,ay occur in a specialized market 
are from the best to the poorest, as follov^s : P'ancy, 
prime, choice, good, medium, fair, common, and poor or 
inferior. Quality, condition, age, sex, conformation, 
breed, finish and soundness determine to a large extent 
the particular class and grade into w^hich any hog or 
group of hogs will fall. 

Market classes flexible. — It must not be considered 
that market classes and grades are inflexible, for no two 
markets have the same classification, and certainly all 
kinds, breeds and ages of hogs will be shipped to both. 
Also, even on the same market, the various classes and 
grades will be made up of difTerent kinds of hogs on 
different days, for if there is a demand for a certain class 
or grade of hogs and there are none or but few of these 
to be had, the deficiency will be supplied from other 
classes or grades. Therefore, we must not conclude that 
market classes and grades of swine are absolute and dis- 



MARKETING 229 

tinctive, because they are subject to considerable flexi- 
bility to meet existing conditions. 

Market type.— The term market type is distinctive from 
market classes or grades. Market type is a term em- 
ployed by the breeder of pure-bred swine and by the 
pork producer to designate that class of hogs which the 
market desires. What the breeder and grower want to 
know is which type is most sought after that will at the 
same time yield the greatest profits, in order that they 
can make their business more profitable by directing their 
energies and efforts toward producing that particular 
type. The breeders will then select animals which seem 
to them to approach most nearly the most desirable mar- 
ket type. The grower will in turn be willing to pay the 
breeder better prices for breeding animals possessing this 
desirable market type to a marked degree. The market 
types are, therefore, much fewer than market classes, 
and the only type which the breeder and grower desire 
to eventually produce is the Ideal market type. 

Packing houses. — Of course wherever there are large 
stockyards there are also apt to be packing houses. It 
is to these that by far most of the hogs consigned to the 
stockyards find their way. These packing companies 
have buyers out with orders to buy so many hogs of one 
kind, so many suited for another purpose, and so on. 
The prices are generally rather steady, and these ex- 
perienced buyers for the packing houses are generally 
careful not to pay more than the market price. On the 
whole, a healthy competition exists between the different 
packing firms, and the shipper gets from them the ap- 
proximate market value of his shipment. The packing 



230 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

houses are the life of the central stockyards, for it is they 
that create the demand. They are most necessary and 



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Too large for suitable pork production in the South. 
Courtesy S. H. Lippincott of Maryland. 

developments of an extensive swine industry v^ould be 
almost impossible without them. 



MARKETING 231 

What the butcher wants. — Not only does the butcher 
desire a carcass with as large a percentage of edible meats 
as possible, but he also desires that as great a percentage 
as possible of the carcass be made up of the higher-priced 
cuts. These cuts are located in the hind part of the hog, 
and are made up mostly of the ham and loin. It is the 
hind half of the hog that makes money for the butcher 
and packer, for it is this part that sells materially above 
what he paid for it. Therefore, what the butcher really 
wants for the retail meat trade is a high dressing hog, 
not so fat that he has to be scaled, and with as large a 
proportion of the carcass weight in the hams and loins 
as is possible. A heavy ham, wide back and loin, with 
straightness of top and underline, and other character- 
istics indicative of capacity for the production of high- 
priced pork are sought. 

The dressing percentage. — The dressing per cent of 
a hog is determined by dividing the dressed weight by 
the live weight and multiplying by 100. Since it is the 
carcass of the hogs we are after, the dressing percentage 
becomes a very important factor. The expert buyer will 
accurately estimate the dressing percentage. The ques- 
tion of record and average dressing percentages is of 
interest. On southern markets average hogs will dress 
around 65 to 70 per cent. The better class range from 
75 to 85 per cent. Hogs on southern markets will aver- 
age nearly 5 per cent less than hogs from the Corn Belt. 
At one slaughter test held in Chicago in which seventy 
head of hogs were entered the highest dressing per cent 
was 90.2. This figure is exceptional, of course. 

Factors affecting dressing per cent. — All kinds of hogs 
come to the market. They will be found to dress all the 



232 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

way from 50 up to 85 per cent, depending on several 
factors. Among these factors may be mentioned, first 
of all, condition. As a rule the higher the condition the 
higher the dressing percentage. Since the fat is de- 
posited largely in and over the musculature, it is quite 
evident that the higher the condition the greater will be 
the proportion of carcass to offal and waste matter. 
Quality is also generally associated with a high dressing 
per cent. Especially is quality of importance in coarse 
hogs with large bones and paunchy middles. The butcher 
desires a minimum bone, just large enough to bear the 
weight of the hog's body from the time the hog is bought 
until it is on the killing floor. Next in importance is the 
paunchiness, or the relative size of belly compared with 
the rest of the body. The larger the paunch, regardless 
of the cause, the less will be the dressing percentage. 
Next, the seediness of old sows and the staginess of 
boars and stags will result in an appreciable lowering of 
the dressing percentage. Old sows that have raised a 
large number of pigs generally have considerable waste 
on their bellies that will have to be trimmed off. 

Federal inspection. — At the present time in all of our 
larger packing plants federal inspectors are placed to see 
that no diseased meats are slaughtered and that no 
spoiled meats are placed on the markets. This work was 
started several years ago, and the results of the constant 
care and watchfulness have greatly increased the quality 
of the packing plant output. At first the inspection was 
objected to, but the public and packers soon adjusted 
themselves to the new conditions, and although there 
is still ample room for improvement the work has pro- 
ceeded most effectively. It is unfortunate that this in- 



MARKETING 



233 



spection and supervision cannot be carried on in even 
the smaller plants. The packers usually invite federal 
inspection on account of the prestige it gives and be- 
cause the public demands federal inspected meats. For 




Home-packing products resulting from high specialization. 

one plant to have inspection and another not to have it 
gives the latter an undue advantage, because in the 
latter case the condemnations will be very few, while 
the profits of the former will be greatly cut through the 
condemnations by the federal inspectors. A more ex- 
tensive application of federal inspection is desirable. 

Home retail marketing of pork. — The slaughtering of 
pork at home not only provides an ample supply for 
home consumption, but by home slaughtering a means 
is provided to secure greater returns from the hogs 
grown. The hogs may be slaughtered and sold as fresh 
pork to the butcher, or it may be retailed out and the 



234 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

greatest returns are realized. Many southern farmers 
are beginning to make a practice of curing a surplus of 
pork, to be sold later on in the season, generally to a 
select retail trade. The hams, shoulders and sides are 
especially adapted for selling as cured meats. It is very 
often the case that these parts of the carcass will bring 
as much or more than the entire hog would on foot, which 
would leave the head, ribs, backbone, sausage, lard and 
other parts as clear profit for the extra labor involved. 
The home retail marketing of pork is especially to be 
recommended for the small farmer, and a profitable 
method of marketing in this manner may be developed 
by the more extensive producer. 



CHAPTER X 

PORK 

Pork as a food. — Pork has been in our dietary for many 
centuries. It is one of our standard meat foods. It has 
its advantages and disadvantages in comparison v^ith 
other meats. It is fatter than most meats, which under 
some conditions w^ould be considered a disadvantage. 
On the other hand, there is a larger proportion of meat 
to bone in pork than in either beef or mutton. Likew^ise, 
the percentage of w^ater in pork is low^er than in these 
other two meats and the energy content per pound is 
greater, which are advantages not easily overcome. The 
fact that in this country we annually produce and con- 
sume nearly $1,000,000,000 worth of pork and pork prod- 
ucts shows the extensiveness of its use as a food. 

Composition of pork. — As a food pork may be con- 
sidered as composed of two materials, the edible part 
and the non-edible or waste. The non-edible part con- 
sists of such refuse as skin, bone and gristle. The amount 
of waste in a piece of pork is dependent upon the cut 
from which it comes. The waste in pork chops will run 
from 12 to 24 per cent, while for ham it will run from 
8 to 14 per cent. The edible portion is the portion in 
which we are primarily interested. This is made up 
of water, fat, protein and ash. All meats contain some 
water. Dry salt pork contains a minimum and may have 
as little as 4 per cent of water. On the other hand, fresh 
pork may contain as high as 60 per cent moisture. The 
fat is likewise variable, and pork may contain all the way 



236 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



from 10 to 95 per cent. From the standpoint of economy 
we desire pork with as much fat as possible. The pro- 
teins or nitrogenous compounds of pork are very im- 
portant, as is the case with all meats. The amount of 




Making pure-bred Tamworth pork on Westview Stock Farm, 
Winston-Salem, N. C. 

protein in pork will vary from 2 to 20 per cent. The 
ash of pork is of importance even though present in rather 
small quantities. On the whole, pork contains less waste 
matter than other foods, and the food value is greater 
than most other meats on account of its high fat content. 

Pork-slaughtering industry. — The pork-slaughtering 
industry of the past on an extensive scale has for the 
most part been confined to northern markets. The south- 
ern markets are, however, coming to slaughter more and 
more pork annually. Practically all of the slaughtering 



PORK 237 

centers pattern after Chicago in so far as is practical, 
since this is the largest pork-packing center in the world. 
It may be well, therefore, to refer to the industry as it 
is carried on there, where seven millions of hogs are 
slaughtered annually. It is here that the industry has 
been carried to its present high point of specialization. 

Slaughtering. — The slaughtering of hogs takes place 
to a limited extent on the farm, to a much larger extent 
by the local butcher, and to a still greater extent by the 
pork packer. The volume of slaughtering by some of 
the larger packing plants is enormous. In order to ac- 
commodate the volume, methods are employed which 
insure rapidity of slaughter. In these larger plants the 
slaughtering takes place at the rate of several per minute. 
The usual plan is to have a hoisting wheel to which the 
hogs are shackled by a shackler with chains that are 
hung to the large wheel. This wheel revolves and ele- 
vates them and runs them off onto the sticking rail or 
bar automatically to the sticker. Expert stickers can 
stick as many as ten head per minute. From the sticker 
the hogs pass to the scalding vats and automatic scrap- 
ing machines, the scraping being finished by hand. They 
are then beheaded, gutted, split, washed down and hung 
in the cooler. 

Variations in carcasses. — Aside from differences in 
weight, the carcasses show marked differences in form 
as they hang in the cooler. Some are wide and compact 
showing high condition, while others are long and nar- 
row. Great differences are manifested in particular in 
the region of the ham and loin. In the halved carcasses 
the various ratios between the amounts of fat and lean 



238 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

in similarly shaped carcasses are also quite noticeable. 
Even in those carcasses possessing the same degree of 
condition there is a marked tendency on the part of some 
to place it on the back, while others show more of a 
tendency to deposit it on the inside of the ribs and around 
the kidneys. In the cut carcasses there is also marked 
differences in the degree of marbling, even when the 
quantity of fat on the back is the same. The color of 
both the fat and the lean presents marked contrasts. The 
grain of the meat, the quality and size of the bone, and 
the degree of moisture presented on the cut surface are 
other respects in which the carcasses will be found to 
differ greatly. In some carcasses, especially where the 
hog is old and fat, the meat will separate from the bones 
if the cooling has not been begun soon enough after 
slaughter; or, if the carcass has not been cooled to a 
sufficiently low temperature, the same result may be seen. 

Classification of hog carcasses. — This lack of uni- 
formity necessitates a classification where the slaughter- 
ing is carried on on a sufficiently extensive scale to justify 
specialization. The butcher and packer are, of course, 
primarily interested in these variations, as they are used 
in determining the specific use for which the carcass is 
best suited. The different ways in which carcasses may 
differ are in age, size, condition, color of lean, shape, 
thickness of fleshing, thickness of external fat, distribu- 
tion of fat, color of fat, grain and texture of meat, hard- 
ness and size of bone and in soundness and quality. In 
the large packing houses the carcasses are placed in va- 
rious classes dependent upon the above qualities. The 
most complete classification that has been made of hog 
carcasses is that by Hall reported in Bulletin 147 of the 



PORK 239 

Illinois Station. In this, dressed hogs are divided into 
six classes — smooth, heavy hogs, butcher hogs, packing 
hogs, bacon hogs, shippers and pigs. Packing hogs are 
further graded into heavy, medium and light, and bacon 
hogs are further divided into choice, good and common. 
The classification is thus based upon the use to w^hich 
the carcass is best adapted. It requires an expert to 
properly classify carcasses. This classification is, of 
course, more or less arbitrary and flexible, and if there 
is a shortage of a certain class the demand w^ill be met 
from other classes having similar carcasses. 

Qualifications of a good carcass. — The qualifications 
of a good carcass will largely depend upon the kind of a 
carcass or class and the use to v\^hich it is to be put. 
Above all, an extra development is sought in those parts 
that are of greatest value. The thickness and smooth- 
ness of outside fat are especially essential. The qualities 
of the lean meat are important. This should be abun- 
dant in quantity and of fine grain and proper color. The 
bones should be small and fine. Especially should there 
be a high development of ham and loin. These tv^o parts 
command better prices than the rest of the hog because 
there is less w^aste in them, and they possess to a marked 
degree the required tenderness, marbling and palata- 
bility, and present an attractive appearance on the block. 
Experimental evidence has shown that there is but little 
difference in the nutritive value of meats from different 
parts of the carcass. There are differences in palata- 
bility and proportion of waste in preparing for the table. 
It is the proportion of higher-priced cuts or the form of 
the carcass that makes the greatest difference in value. 
Therefore, the-aim of the producer of pork should be to 



240 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

grow those carcasses which will retail for the largest 
figures, for in the long run they will prove the most 
profitable. 

Pork cuts. — When hogs are killed in the larger packing 
houses they may be sold either in the carcass or cut up. 
When cut up the regulation cuts and parts of the hog's 
carcass are the hams, sides, bellies, backs, shoulders, 
loins, butts and plates, miscellaneous and lard. These 
may be graded to some extent to meet the demands of 
the trade. The grading of pork cuts is more or less diffi- 
cult owing to the fact that the grading is complicated by 
the style of cutting and methods of packing required for 
different classes of trade. 

The offal. — With the high degree of specialization that 
comes with the development of a great industry we find 
that some use is made of everything and that nothing 
is wasted. This is especially true of the pork-packing 
industry. Everything that cannot be classed as pork 
to be eaten as food is used in some manner. The blood 
may go for the manufacture of dried blood to be used as 
a stock feed. From the small scraps of meat and other 
parts unfit for human food digester tankage is made as 
a feed for swine. A great many of the waste parts are 
used in the arts and trades. Soap stock is made from the 
fat rendered in the making of digester tankage and meat 
meal and from the making of fertilizers. Fertilizers are 
made from all of the contents of the alimentary tract and 
from the inedible organs. The stomachs and bladders 
may be used for packages for use in the various trades. 
The casings are sometimes used in the packing of sau- 
sages. It is largely on account of their ability to make 



242 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

profitable use of all parts of the hog that the larger 
specialized packing interests are able to compete so suc- 
cessfully with the small butcher. 

Pork for home use. — We are apt to consider that we 
can best sell our hogs on foot and then buy our required 
pork as we need it, but such is not economy. The 
slaughtering and curing of pork for home use has many 
advantages to commend it. One cannot only save money 
by it, but a better pork supply is to be had. Dry, hard 
and tasteless meats are not wanted. Juicy, sweet and 
tender meats can be had if some care is taken in the 
methods employed in slaughtering, dressing, curing and 
preserving. The aim of the farmer should be not only to 
supply enough pork for home consumption, but to supply 
a surplus to be sold in case it is not needed. 

Co-operative slaughtering. — The extra force required 
to do slaughtering and butchering can best be overcome 
by co-operation among a few farmers in a community. 
By this method five or six farmers of a community will 
form a butchers' club and go from one farm to the other 
and do the slaughtering. Each one becomes more or 
less expert and adept at some particular phase of the 
work, which means added efficiency. One man may in 
this way become quite expert at scalding and scraping, 
another may become expert at dressing, and still another 
at cutting up, another at trimming, and another at sau- 
sage making and so on. An added advantage that comes 
from such an association is that fresh pork may thus be 
had at almost all seasons of the year. The plan would 
be to kill a hog turn about during the warmer weather 
and rotate the parts to the members of the association. 



PORK 243 

This plan is already in operation and is working quite 
successfully in some sections. 

Kind of hogs to butcher. — Under most circumstances 
one will not have an opportunity to exercise any great 
degree of selection in picking out animals for slaughter. 
He should know, however, those animals best suited for 
the making of home-cured pork and should strive to pro- 
duce such animals. The hog, to be ideal, must have 
sufficient fat to make the meat palatable and juicy. He 
must not, however, have so much fat that it will make 
the meat unsavory. The exact amount to be desired will 
be largely a matter of taste. Also, it must be recognized 
that good pork cannot be made unless the animal 
is in perfect health. The hog must be of the right age 
and breeding. Hogs that have been bred for pork pro- 
duction for decades are more apt to make better pork 
than the scrub without improved breeding. Also, only 
young animals should be used. The best meats are not 
to be had from animals that are old. There are also other 
precautions to be taken prior to slaughter. Feed should 
be withheld for a period of twenty-four hours. The 
hogs should be killed with as little excitement as possible, 
for a little nervousness tends to bring on a rise in tem- 
perature, with its resultant bad effects on the keeping 
quality, taste and color of the meat. 

Proper time to butcher. — In a great portion of the 
South where coolers are not to be had the most suitable 
time for butchering will depend to a considerable extent 
upon the weather conditions. Rainy and moist weather 
is to be avoided. Clear, crisp, cool weather around freez- 
ing is about the best. Most farmers prefer to kill in the 



244 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

forenoon, for the reason that it is generally a full day's 
work to do the butchering properly. Where one or two 
hogs are to be killed, the afternoon may be preferred, as 
the carcass will be allowed to cool overnight without 
passing through the heat of the day. Where the meat 
is not to be cured, but is to be disposed of as fresh pork, 
any weather is suitable. 

Killing the hogs. — In some sections it is not custom- 
ary to stun the hogs before sticking, but owing to the 
excitement resulting from holding while sticking, it is 
probably the best plan to stun in some way. Many prefer 
to strike in the forehead with an ax, but more satisfactory 
results may be secured by shooting with a small-calibered 
rifle, especially if the hogs are fat. Regardless of whether 
the hog is stunned or not, the essentials of sticking are 
the same. A narraw straight-bladed knife at least 8 
inches long should be used. This is inserted in the hog's 
throat just in front of the breastbone, directed back- 
wards toward the center of the body directly in line with 
the backbone. After penetrating to a depth of 6 or 8 
inches, it is turned sideways, given a side thrust and 
withdrawn. To give the best results it should be sharp 
on both sides of the point. If the sticking is done prop- 
erly the blood will come out in spurts. The sticking 
should pierce the heart or the aorta, the main artery lead- 
ing from the heart. A novice must be careful not to deviate 
far from the median line in inserting the sticking knife, 
for the blade may run up between the shoulder and ribs, 
rendering the cut unfit for curing. 

Scalding. — As soon as the hog is dead and the blood 
has stopped flowing the hog should be scalded without 



PORK 245 

undue delay. This means that the water should be hot 
before the hog is killed. There is usually more danger 
of having the water too hot than too cold. If too hot, 
the hair will be set. More time is required with water 
not quite so hot, but the lessened dangers more than con- 
pensate for the small loss in time. Unless one is expert 
a thermometer should be used to determine the tem- 
perature of the water. At the time the hog is being 
scalded the water should be between 150 and 175 degrees. 
Too much time is required below 150 degrees, and there 
is too much danger of setting the hair above 175 degrees. 
Between these temperatures from 40 to 80 seconds will 
be required to properly scald, the longer time being re- 
quired with the lower temperature. While in the water 
the hog should be kept moving constantly to prevent 
cooking the skin. It is best to remove the hog and try 
the hair from time to time. Some use wood ashes in the 
water to make the scurf loosen, and others use soft soap 
and lye for the same purpose. By using these the skin 
is easier cleaned. 

Scraping. — As soon as the hog is scalded he may be 
removed to a platform to be scraped. The head and feet 
are generally cleaned first. A knife is best for these parts. 
The feet and legs can be cleaned with the hands by 
twisting against the hair, if these parts are properly 
scalded. The longer hair of the body can be removed 
with the hands, and the shorter hair and scurf can best 
be scraped off with a corn knife, a hog scraper, or dull 
butcher knife. After scraping off all the hair the entire 
carcass should be shaved with a sharp butcher knife, 
after washing with hot water. The hog is now ready to 
be hoisted. The gambrel cords are raised and the gam- 



246 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

brel stick inserted and the hog hoisted, after which those parts 
not properly cleaned may be gone over again. The carcass 
is then washed off with cold water and is ready for dressing. 

Dressing. — The carcasses should not be allowed to 
hang too long before they are gutted. To do this the 
hog is first split between the hind legs, separating the 
pubic bones with a knife. The cut is then continued 
down the median line of the abdomen and chest and 
through the breastbone to the sticking place in the neck. 
The cutting through of the breastbone may require an 
ax if the hog is of any size. The next operation is to 
return to the bung or rectum and cut around it and carry 
it on down, cutting supporting cords where necessary. 
This permits the stomach and intestines to fall out. The 
gall bladder can then be sliced off the liver. The artery 
should be cut that runs down the backbone, the dia- 
phragm should be cut out around the wall of the body, 
and the heart, lungs, gullet and tongue removed with the 
rest of the offal. The mouth of the hog can be propped 
open with a block of wood and the whole carcass washed 
down several times. The leaf lard and kidney fat can 
then be removed if the weather is warm. If the carcass 
is large, it had best be split down the center by sawing 
after removing the head. The carcass should then be 
allowed to hang over until early the next day, when it is 
ready to be cut up and started curing, if not to be dis- 
posed of as fresh pork. If the weather is cold it may be 
allowed to hang longer, but usually the sooner the cur- 
ing process starts the better. 

Cutting up the carcass. — After the carcass has cooled 
overnight it should be taken down and cut up. To do 



248 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



this properly requires a good sharp butcher knife, a long 
butcher knife, a saw, a sharp chop^ ax, and a solid table. 
If not already split the head may be removed and the 
carcass split while still hanging, if it 
is large. If not split and small, the 
best way is to place the carcass on the 
table and remove the head by cutting 
off an inch back of the ears. The 
shoulders are removed by cutting be- 
tween the fourth and fifth ribs, and the 
hams are cut off" about two inches in 
front of the pelvic bone. The hams 
and shoulders are then split apart, the 
feet removed and trimmed, the middle 
piece split and the leaf fat removed 
with the kidneys. 

Cuts of pork. — There are several 
common methods of cutting up pork, 
especially as regards the middle part 
of the body. Nearly everyone cuts off 
the head, the shoulders and the hams 
about the same. The middle part may 
be divided into backbone, ribs and 
sides, if to be cured, or, if to be sold 
fresh, it may be cut so as to secure a 
loin, from which pork chops are ob- 
tained, leaving the ribs and sides; in 
either case the sides may be divided into the middle cut 
and belly. On the farm the most common method where 
the meat is to be cured is to have the following cuts : 
Head, shoulders, hams, side, ribs, backbone, leaf lard 
and trimmings. In addition to the above, one also has 
the feet, heart and liver. 






Showing the usu- 
al method of cut- 
ting the side into 
(1) ham, (2) 
belly, (3) back, 
and (4) shoulder. 



PORK 249 

Trimming the cuts.— The method of trimming of the 
several cuts depends a great deal upon custom. The best 
way is to split the head in quarters, removing the jow^l 
for salting. The shoulder is trimmed by cutting out the 
ribs and neck bone, trimming down to the top of the 
shoulder blade, trimming off all loose bloody meat and 
removing the foot above the knee joint. The middles 
may be trimmed in several ways. The backbone is gen- 
erally used for fresh pork, the loin removed, the ribs cut 
out as close as possible, and the side stripped lengthwise 
into two or three pieces, depending on the size of the 
hog and the use to be made of it. The hams are trimmed 
by removing the feet about 2 inches above the hock 
joint and by rounding off the corners and edges. All 
lean trimmings are used for the making of sausage and 
the fat for lard. The feet, ears and snout may be pickled. 
The several cuts may be used for either fresh pork or 
for curing, as may be desired. 

Value of the cuts. — The cuts coming from the several 
parts of the hog are of different values because some are 
in greater demand than others. These values are based 
upon convenience in cooking, tenderness, flavor and 
general appearance, and not so much upon their nutritive 
values. The comparative values fixed by the public for 
the different parts of the carcass are shown in the fol- 
lowing figures and tables. A side of pork is shown with 
the cuts most commonly made and the location of these 
cuts on the live hog is shown by the diagram. The tables 
give the name, value per pound, average value in per- 
centage of the whole carcass and average value in weight 
of the whole carcass. The value of the cuts depends to 
a large extent upon the method of cutting. The two 



250 



SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 



recognized methods are the usual farm cut, and the other 
Is the usual market or retail cut. 

In this table the values given prevailed at several points 
when live fat hogs v^ere selling at 8 cents per pound. On 
this basis a 200-pound hog v^ould bring $16. From the 
table it is seen that a farmer can kill his hogs and have 
as clear money on each hog the amounts brought by the 
parts other than the hams, shoulders and bacon or side 
meat, for these three parts will on the average bring 
cured as much as the entire hog on foot. These figures 
also show a slight advantage in method of cutting of the 
usual retail market cut as compared with the method 
used on the farm. In this table both methods of cutting 
are included. The basis for comparison is made on a 200- 
pound hog dressing 80 per cent, yielding a 160-pound carcass. 

Farm cuts Weight Per cent Av. value Value of 

of carcass p. lb. in cuts 

weight cents 

Head 16 10 6.5 $1.04 

Shoulders 25 16 17.5 4.37 

Hams 30 19 21.0 6.30 

Sides 44 27 15.0 6.60 

Ribs 6 4 13.0 0.78 

Backbone 20 12 13.0 2.60 

Leaf lard 10 6 15.0 1.50 

Sausage 5 3 15.0 0.75 

Feet 4 3 5.0 0.20 

Total 160 100 $24.14 

Market cuts 

Head 16 10 6.5 $1.04 

Shoulders 26 16 17.5 4.55 

Loin 36 23 16.0 5.76 

Ham 32 20 21.0 6.72 

Middle 15 9 15.0 2.25 

Belly 15 9 12.5 1.87 

Ribs 6 4 13.0 0.78 

Leaf lard 10 6 15.0 1.50 

Feet 4 3 5.0 0.20 

Total 160 100 $24.67 



PORK 251 

Keeping fresh pork. — In the South we are unable to 
keep fresh pork as they do in colder climates, where 
carcasses and cuts are frequently hung in outbuildings 
to freeze, and from which fresh pork is taken as needed. 
This can be done only to a very limited extent in the 
South. We must therefore look to other means of keeping 
fresh pork. The most common method is artificial cold 
or cold storage. This preserves the pork in the most 
palatable and nutritious form. For keeping pork fresh, 
a temperature of 40 degrees or below should be main- 
tained. At this temperature, with good ventilation, fresh 
pork cuts can be safely kept for a week or ten days. 
Dampness is especially to be avoided in the refrigerator. 
Ice houses of proper construction may also be used to 
advantage in the keeping of fresh pork. Another method 
that is employed by some is partial cooking. By this 
method the pork chops or loin or sausages are partially 
cooked, packed down in jars and hot melted lard poured 
over the whole. The packed jars are then kept in a dark 
cool cellar. Pork preserved in this manner is not as good 
as freshly cooked fresh pork, but the method has several 
advantages to commend it. It is applicable to all parts 
of the South and may be employed where cold storage 
is not available. Another method used to a limited ex- 
tent to preserve fresh pork for a short time is to pack it 
in salt. 

Curing pork on the farm. — When a man raises hogs 
he should by all means cure sufficient pork to meet the 
needs of his family, and any additional, which he may 
cure, can always be disposed of at a good profit. There 
is and always will be a ready market for home-cured 
pork products,, and but few farmers will meet with any 



252 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

difficulty in finding regular customers for their cured 
pork. To properly cure meats requires considerable 
work, and it is something at which considerable skill can 
be developed. The aim should be to produce only the 
best cured pork, whether it is to be used for home con- 
sumption or for sale. Juicy, savory, nicely put up cured 
pork will always command a good figure, and the com- 
mon, dry, hard, tasteless, salty, roughly trimmed and 
poorly cured pork will never prove very profitable. 

Vessels for curing. — A clean barrel or cask is good to 
pickle pork in. The only essentials for a suitable vessel 
are that it be clean, free from bad odors, tight and large 
enough to hold the meat. 

Preservatives. — The more common preservatives used 
are sugar, salt and saltpeter. These are all that are 
necessary. Others, such as borax and salicylic acid, 
are used sometimes, but the use of such preservatives is 
probably dangerous for those who eat the meat. The 
common preservatives are not poisonous, but effect pres- 
ervation by the withdrawal of moisture and by osmotic 
action, commonly termed astringent action. The sugar 
itself acts somewhat as a preservative, but its main func- 
tion is the addition of a sweet flavor. In warm weather 
baking soda can be used in the brine to keep it sweet 
without danger of injurious effects. 

Brine vs. dry curing. — There are two general methods 
employed in the curing of pork. One of these is the 
common dry curing and the other is brine curing. In 
most sections the dry-curing method is employed, while 
in other sections the brine method is used more exten- 
sively. The method to be recommended will depend to 



PORK . 253 

a large extent upon conditions. The brine curing usually 
gives the best results. 

Dry curing. — When pork is dry cured more work is 
involved, although the actual expense is often much less. 
Each piece of meat must be rubbed over several times 
with the dry salt mixture. The most usual plan is to 
use 6 pounds of salt, 2 pounds of sugar, 2 ounces of salt- 
peter, thoroughly mixed, to every 100 pounds of pork. 
The meat is rubbed once every four days with a fourth 
of the mixture. After each rubbing it is repacked into 
a tight box or barrel. After it has stayed in the cure for 
a week after the last rubbing it may then be taken out, 
brushed off and hung up for smoking, if it is to be smoked. 
Pork will not dry cure well if the place is too hot and 
dry, a cool, moist place being much more desirable. 

Brine curing. — The only thing necessary is to pack the 
cooled meat into a clean barrel and pour over it a prop- 
erly prepared brine. This gives better protection to the 
meat from insects and rodents. Of course, the brine will 
have to be watched carefully, and if it shows signs of be- 
coming ropy it should be either reboiled or new brine 
should be made. For proper brine curing of pork a cool, 
damp cellar is best. Any part of the carcass may be 
brine cured, but ordinarily fat backs and middlings cut 
into strips or 6-inch squares are more commonly used. 

The time the meat is to remain in the brine will de- 
pend on several factors, the principal one being the size 
of the pieces of meat. Smaller pieces should stay not 
longer than six weeks, while larger pieces may stay eight 
weeks or longer without becoming too salty. If the 
brine is not too strong the cuts can be left in the brine 



254 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

until ready for using, but the best plan is to remove 
them after they have been properly cured, wash them 
off, hang and smoke, and v^rap them for proper keeping. 
This method, if properly carried out, produces a juicy 
sweet meat with the desired flavor 

The brine. — There are many formulas in use for mak- 
ing brine. The old standard recipe for sugar curing, of 
which there are many modifications, is made up for every 
100 pounds of pork to be cured, of 8 pounds of salt, 2 
pounds of sugar and 2 ounces of saltpeter dissolved in 
4 gallons of boiling water. To this mixture some prefer 
to add a little seasoning, such as cayenne pepper or other 
spices. This brine should be made up the day before it 
is to be used, so that it will be cool when placed on the 
meat. After putting the brine on the meat it should 
be examined every few days, especially in warm weather, 
and it should be reheated if signs of ropiness or fermenta- 
tions appear. Sometimes the fermentation can be 
checked by the addition of a small amount of common 
baking soda. 

Recipes for curing pork. — Most recipes are modifica- 
tions in some way of the sugar or plain salt method. 
Many of these variations consist essentially in the ad- 
dition of flavors and spices, such as cayenne pepper, black 
pepper berries, allspice berries and molasses. Virginia 
has been noted many years for its hams of fine flavor. 
While there are many recipes used in the several parts 
of the State, one that has been used extensively and has 
met with much favor calls for a brine made up as fol- 
lows: For every 100 pounds of pork, 8 pounds of salt, 
23^ pounds of brown sugar, 1 quart of sugar cane mo- 



PORK 255 

lasses, 2 ounces of baking soda and 1 ounce of saltpeter 
dissolved in 5 gallons of soft water. The meat is cut up 
and packed into the barrel in the usual manner with the 
skin side down. After the brine has cooled it is poured 
over the meat and allowed to stand for about six weeks, 
when it is taken out and smoked, if it is to be smoked, 
or it may be left in the brine and used as desired. 

Another recipe that has been given some considerable 
attention and prominence is what is known as the Ashland 
cure, which gives the famous Ashland hams. In this 3^ 
pounds of saltpeter are used for every ten hams of mod- 
erate size. This is rubbed into the meat thoroughly and 
the meat is packed down in a tight box or barrel for three 
weeks. The meat is then taken up and repacked in a 
tight barrel after brushing ofif most of the cure mixture, 
covered for two weeks with a brine strong enough to float 
an Qgg, after which it is taken out, dried, rubbed with 
fine salt and hung up to smoke, after which it is care- 
fully wrapped and treated to hold the moisture. Both 
of these methods yield cured pork, especially hams, of a 
very superior sort. The two methods yield a slightly 
different kind of ham. The first described recipe yields 
a more juicy ham paler in color, while the latter method 
gives a ham higher in color, but not quite so juicy. 

Smoking. — The smoking process aids in the preserva- 
tion of pork through the creosote absorbed, which also 
protects the meat from insects to some extent. The 
flavor IS what is sought after in connection with smoking, 
hence more attention should be given to this point. The 
flavor is dependent to a large extent upon the wood or 
material burned in the smoking. Pines and resinous 
woods should never be used because of the bad flavor 



PORK 257 

they impart. Green hickory or maple, corncobs and 
cottonseed are the more commonly used materials. 

The pieces to be smoked are taken from the brine or 
dry cure and hung up to drip for a couple of days. Any 
loose salt on the surface should be brushed off with a 
stiff brush. The cuts should then be hung in the smoke- 
house so that no two pieces touch. The fire may then be 
started, using the materials as suggested above. A very 
small slow fire is started, and care should be taken to see 
that at no time the fire gets too hot, and to see that there 
is ventilation at the top to keep from cooking or over- 
heating the pieces hung in the top. It is not necessary 
to do the smoking all at once. It is best to let the smok- 
ing cover a period of two or three weeks, starting the 
fire up every two or three days and continuing until the 
meat is of the desired color. 

Smokehouses. — Any tight house with a ventilator in 
the top can be used to smoke meat in. Every farm should 
have a suitable smokehouse. These can be constructed 
very cheaply from rough lumber, and they will soon re- 
pay for themselves in better meat. In building smoke- 
houses the most modern plans call for the fireplace out- 
side with means of conducting the smoke in. This elimi- 
nates overheating and dangers from fires, and the work 
can be made a little lighter. 

Sacking and keeping. — After meats are smoked they 
may be kept hanging in the smokehouse for a short time, 
if the house is kept dark and dry. If the meat is to be 
kept for any length of time it should be covered. In 
nearly every section skippers make it necessary for extra 
precautions to be taken. To properly prepare meat for 



258 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

keeping, take down after cooling, wipe it off thoroughly, 
and apply with a brush a coating composed of molasses 
and black pepper, nine parts of molasses and one part 
black pepper. After this is applied each piece should be 
wrapped carefully with wrapping paper and inclosed in 
either a heavy muslin sack or else in a paper sack, such 
as a meal or flour sack. After the sack is thoroughly and 
securely tied with a string left for hanging, the whole 
should be dipped into a baking pan containing the yellow 
wash that is sometimes used for this purpose. This wash 
consists of 50 parts of powdered barytes, 1 part each of 
glue and lead chromate, and 5 parts of flour. This is 
prepared by first making a thin paste of the flour, adding 
the glue and dissolved chromate, and finally by stirring 
slowly in the barytes. The entire package is covered 
with this wash and hung in a cool dark place to stay 
until used. Meat properly put up in this way will keep 
for several years and in some instances will improve with 
age. The pieces should be hung so that no two touch. 

Sausage. — Sausage has a distinct advantage in that by 
converting certain parts of the poorer grades of pork into 
sausage it is rendered more palatable and can be kept 
for a longer time. Sausage is commonly made from 
scraps and trimmings. Sometimes on the farm meal or 
flour may be added to the sausage to give it more body 
and to make it more palatable. In the usual method of 
sausage making, however, only clean scraps from fresh 
pork are used. These should contain about one-fourth 
fat. To each 4 pounds of the finely ground meat scraps 
should be added 1 ounce of salt and a half ounce each of 
ground pepper and sage. The amount of seasoning will 
depend to a large extent upon the individual taste. The 



PORK 259 

meat should be run through the cutter the second time 
after the seasoning has been added. Sausage will keep 
fresh several days if the weather is cool or if a dry- 
refrigerator is available. If it is intended to keep it any 
length of time, the sausage can be partly cooked and 
covered with hot lard, or it can be stufifed into sausage 
casings or muslin sacks, covered with or dipped into 
melted lard, and hung up and smoked, when it will keep 
for a considerably longer time. 

Head cheese. — The hog's head and sometimes the feet 
are used in making this dish. The head is cleaned, the 
eyes removed, the skin cut ofif, the head split through 
lengthwise both ways, fat removed, brains taken out, and 
the whole put to soak in salt water overnight. The parts 
are then boiled until the meat easily falls from the bones. 
The meat is then finely chopped with a knife, the boiling 
liquor poured over the meat and cooked down until it 
begins to thicken. The whole is seasoned to suit with 
salt and pepper and poured into crocks, dishes and jars 
to be molded, when it can be sliced off and eaten cold 
as needed. Souse is made in about the same manner. 

Liverwurst. — The liver, lights, hearts and other edible 
scraps are cut into chunks and stewed until tender, when 
they are removed from the fire, allowed to cool, when 
they are chopped finely, put back and reheated until the 
mixture begins to thicken, when they may be molded as 
in the case of head cheese. As needed it is sliced off and 
eaten either hot or cold. 

Pickled pigs' feet. — The feet are scraped clean, toes 
removed, the clean feet soaked in cold water overnight, 
cooked until soft and salted while cooking. They are 



260 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION 

then removed from the water, split, packed in earthen 
jars, and hot vinegar and spices are poured over the whole, 
in which case they will keep for several weeks, if placed 
in a cool place. 

- Scrapple.^Scrapple is made in the -same manner as 
head cheese, except that when the meat is returned to 
the pot after chopping and when recooking begins, corn 
meal is stirred in until the whole attains the constituency 
of corn meal mush. This is cooked and stirred for 30 
minutes, when it should be poured into shallow dishes 
or pans to be molded. When cool it can be sliced thin 
and fried or eaten cold. 

Lard. — The best lard comes from the leaf fat on the 
inside of the abdominal wall. The fat from backs, sides 
and trimmings from the hams, shoulders and other cuts 
make a very good grade, while that lard from the in- 
testinal fat, stomach and pluck is of an Inferior grade 
and should be rendered separately. In rendering or try- 
ing out lard the chunks should be cut into cubes of about 
an inch square. The pieces of fat are then placed in a 
kettle, a small amount of water added to keep the bottom 
pieces from sticking, and the whole cooked until the 
cracklings brown and rise to the top. These cracklings 
should be skimmed off and the lard pressed out with a 
lard press. The remainder should then be strained 
through a cloth into cans or jars and stirred until cool. 
The stirring and the addition of a small quantity of bak- 
ing soda will help to whiten the lard and make it more 
salable, if it is desired to sell it. The cracklings are fre- 
quently mixed in with corn meal mush and with corn 
bread. In this way an otherwise waste product can be 
made into a palatable dish. 



INDEX 



Page 

Abscesses . 200, 201, 203 

Abortion, 192 

causes 168 

chronic 169 

prevention 193 

Acre, pork-producing capacity of 34 

Adulterants, feed 145 

Advertising 107, 108 

Age, 28, 227 

and weight 86 

for breeding 165 

of breeding swine 99 

of maturity 94, 101 

Agriculture, permanent 7 

Alabama 14, 15, 16 

Alfalfa, 6, 124, 125, 127, 128 

feeding, value of 136 

pasture 136 

Animals, meat 10 

Apoplexy 190 

Appetite 168 

Areca nut 198 

Arkansas 14, 15, 16 

Artichokes 6, 144 

Ascaris stiis 196 

Assimilation 25 

Associations, record 22, 77 

swine breeders' . 32 

Atavism . 27 

Back 79, 83, 89, 248 

Bacon, breeds 53 

type 36, 53, 81, 212 

Barley 144 

Barnyard manure 2, 3 

Barrenness 44, 192 

Beans 5 

Bedding 153. 158, 159 

Belly 79, 83, 87, 248 

Berkshire, _ 51, 59, 62, 68, 73, 75, 101 

adaptability 65 

as feeders 66 

association 67 

261 



2()2 INDEX 

Page 

Berkshire, blood lines . 66 

color 65 

distribution 66 

English 76 

fecundity 66 

origin 64 

size . 65 

size of litters 66 

Bermuda, 5, 124, 127, 13S 

feeding value of . . . 132 

pasture . ^ 131 

supplementing 132 

Big China 53, 54 

Big Guinea, adaptability 74 

characteristics ......... 73 

distribution 74 

origin 73 

Biology 35 

Black Suffolk 62 

Blindness 190 

Blind staggers 191 

Blood poisoning 179 

Blue grass 124 

feeding value 141 

pasture 140 

supplements to 141 

Boar breeder 34 

care of 172 

grade 30 

pure-bred . . . 16, 34, 96 

quality of 104 

scrub 30, 31 

selection of .... 43 

Body, 91 

cells ^ 18, 19, 25 

Boll weevil 4 

Bone, 104 

larger and stronger 39 

quality of 103 

size 103 

Borax 252 

Bran, wheat 144 

Boys' pig clubs . . 12, 13, 14 

Breed, best . . . . 75 

associations 77 

characteristics 52, 105 

selection of . . . 75, 76 

time to 166 

type 36, 53, 103 



INDEX 263 

Page 

Breeders, purchasing 98 

swine . 4, 18, 209 

Breeder's reputation 107 

Breeding . . 16, 116 

Breeding animals, condition of 43 

selection of 97 

Breeding, best to best , 21 

condition ^ 43 

conditions in South 29 

cross 23 

for pork 34 

for type 35 

for utility 36, 37 

improved, lack of 30 

laws of 18, 28, 29 

time 23 

management 42 

principles of 29 

progress in . 109 

promotion of better 32 

science of 18 

season 166 

table 47 

Breeding swine, age of 99 

as a business 32 

condition of 102 

conformation of 100 

constitution of 94 

costs of 97 

early maturity in 100 

judging 95 

quality of 104 

principles of 17 

selecting _ 102, 103 

Breeds, adaptability of 52 

crossing of 39 

new 50 

number of 75 

of swine 17, 19, 23, 48, 51 

origin of 50 

white 76 

Bristle 104 

Bronchitis 193 

Brood sow management 172 

Bruises 204 

Brine, ^ 252 

curing 253 

fermentation in 254 

formulas for 254 



264 



INDEX 



Brine, ropiness in 
Bur clover, 

feeding value 
pasture . 
supplementing 
Bureau animal industry 
Burning carcasses 
Butcher, 

demands of . 

time to . 
Butchering . 

weather for . 
Butter milk . 
Byfield 

By-products of vi^heat 
Calomel 
Canker 
Capital 

Carbohydrates . 
Carcasses, cooling 

classification of 

cutting up 

qualifications of 

quality of 

soundness of 

variations in 
Carloads, average 
Cassava 
Castration 

age for . 
Catarrh, nasal 
Cell, . 

division 

functions 

processes 

structure 

wall 
Cells, . . 

body 

germinal 

reproduction 

somatic . 
Cervix, contraction of 
Character, . 

in unsexed swine 
Characters, acquired 

Mendelization of 

segregation of 

somatic . 



Page 
254 
6, 127 
138 
138 
138 

12 

205 

85, 231 

84 
243 
243 
243 

11 

53 

140 

198 

194 

7 

122, 147 

246 

238 

246 

239 

238 

238 

237 

220 

5, 6, 143 

200 

162 

193 

25 

25, 26 

25 

25 

25 

25 

26 

,18, 19, 25 
18, 25 
18 
25 
44 
97 
94 
19 
39 
20 
18 



INDEX 265 

Page 

Characters, transmission of acquired 18 

unit 20 

Cheese, head .^ 259 

Cheshire, association 64 

blood Hnes • . 64 

characteristics of 64 

distribution of 64 

origin of 63 

Chest 79, 83, 89 

Chester White, 52, 101 

adaptability 57 

association 58 

characteristics 66 

distribution 57 

fecundity 57 

origin ^ 56 

size of litters 57 

Chicken eating 173 

Chinese 49, 56, 59, 64, 67 

Chloride of lime 205 

Chufas 5, 6, 122, 128 

feeding value 136 

grazing 136 

supplementing 136 

yield 136 

Classes, market 227, 228 

of hogs 8 

show Ill 

Classification, market 227 

of hog carcasses 238 

of swine 81 

Climate 5, 22, 28, 50, 125, 150 

Clovers 5, 128 

alsike 143 

bur 6 

cri.nson 6, 144 

Japan 6 

Mexican 143 

red 6 

white 6, 143 

Coal tar dips 207 

Coastal plain 2, 8 

Cold storage . ^ 251 

Coloration, protective 46 

Color of swine 46, 52, 53 

Commercial fertilizer 3 

Commission houses ......... 226 

Commission men 225 

Condimental feeds 145 



266 I^LD.EX 

Page 

Condition, .... 28, 83, 92, 109, 112, 114, 116, 117, 227 

degree of 212 

healthy 43 

high . . ^ 28, 43, 170 

of breeding animals 43, 102 

show 102 

Confinement 28 

Conformation, 28, 96, 98, 114, 116 

of breeding swine ......... 100 

of swine 52 

Constipation .......... 186 

Constitution, 28, 35, 83, 91, 93, 94, 95, 98 

indications of 94 

lack of ... 38 

Consumer of pork 215 

Cooking, of feeds . 114 

fresh pork 251 

Cooler 241 

Cooling carcasses 247 

Co-operative, hog shipping 221, 222, 223 

slaughtering 242 

swine breeding 31 

Corn, 5, 6, 116, 122, 124, 128, 129, 146 

clubs, 13 

feeding alone 122 

feeding value of . 129 

protein of .... 120 

supplements for 122 

supplementing 129 

Corn belt 54 

Corrosive sublimate 205 

Cost of fifty-pound pig 164 

Costs of production, factors influencing 211 

Cotton, 1, 10 

farmers 1 

production, increasing 30 

Cottonseed, 11 

meal 116, 142, 145, 146 

meal, feeding value of 142 

meal, on pasture 143 

Coughing 193 

County swine breeders' association 32 

Cowpeas, 5, 6, 125, 128, 144 

feed value of 132 

grazing 132 

supplementing 132 

Crab grass 5 

Credits 7 

Crimson clover . 6 



INDEX 267 

Page 

Crops, cultivated 5 

fattening 5 

forage, 4, 123 

grazing 5, 123 

Cross-bred 38, 41 

Crossing breeds 23, 24, 39, 104 

Crude oil 207 

Cryptorchids 202 

Culls and waste 11 

Cumberland 59 

Curing, brine 252, 253 

dry 252, 253 

of meats 13 

pork, recipes for 254 

pork on farm 251 

vessels for 252 

Cutting up carcasses, 246 

tools for . 248 

Cuts, of pork '. .240, 248 

farm 250 

market 250 

trimming 249 

value of 249 

wholesale 87 

Cuts and bruises 200, 203 

Dairy products 10 

Deafness 190 

Delaware 14, 15, 16 

Demands of butcher 84 

Demonstration work 12 

Determination of sex 28 

Dew claws 79 

Diarrhea, causes 187 

Digestive system 180 

Dipping solutions 207 

Dipping vats 206 

Dips 174 

Diseases, swine 5, 28, 174, 178 

control 174 

detection of .-,17^, 176 

indication of .174, 176 

of circulatory system 178 

of digestive system 178 

of excretory system 178 

of locomotor system 178 

of nervous system 178 

of reproductive system , 178 

of respiratory system 178 

. _ of skin. . •. . , 178 



268 INDEX 

Page 

Diseases, prevention of 13, 174, 204 

Disinfection 204, 205 

Disposition 112 

Distribution of swine 14, 51 

District of Columbia 14, 15, 16 

Diversified farms 10 

Domestication of swine, 49 

process of 50 

Drainage 153 

Drenching 177 

Dressing 242 

carcasses 246 

percentage 85, 91, 231 

percentage, factors affecting 231 

Driving hogs to market 224 

Dry curing 252, 253 

Duroc-Jersey, 52, 101 

adaptability of 61 

association 62 

as feeders 61 

blood lines ^ 60 

characteristics of 59 

distribution 62 

fecundity 62 

origin 69 

size 60 

size of litters 62 

Dust 198 

Early maturity, 22, 92, 98 

in breeding swine 100 

indication of 94 

Ears 79, 83 

Eating pigs 173 

Eczema 195 

Educational value of show 108 

Embryo 26 

English Berkshire 76 

Entries, making 110 

Environment . 18,22 

Epilepsy 190, 191 

Essex, . ^ 52, 73, 101 

associations 63 

blood lines 63 

description of 63 

distribution of 63 

introduction to America 63 

origin 62 

Exchange, live stock 227 

Excretory system, diseases of 188 



INDEX 



269 



Exercise, 

for pigs . 
lack of . 
sufficient 
Eyes 
Face 
Fairs 
Fall pigs 
Fallopian tube 
Farmers, pure-bred hogs for 
Farming, live stock 
Farms, diversified 
Farrowing, . 

difficult . 

houses 

houses, winter 

pens 
Fat, 

and lean . 

and lean, distribution 

deposition 

hardness of . 

hardening 

hog, ideal 
Fats 

Fatten, tendency to 
Fattening propensities 
Fatty degeneration 
Fecundity . ^ . 
Federal inspection 
Feed, adulterants 

quality 

quantity . 

saving 

utilization 
Feeding, 

for the show . 

methods of . 

stuffs, commercial 

swine 
Feeds, , 

available 

bulky 

cooking . 
Feet, . 

and legs . 

care of . 
Female germ cells 
Fence breaking . 



28, 116, 



270 INDEX 

Page 

Fences, drift 158 

permanent . 158 

Fencing materials , . 157 

Fertility 22, 23, 24 

of soil . .. . 2, 125 

of soil, increasing 9 

Fertilization of ovum . . 26 

Fertilizers, 240 

commercial 3 

Finishing for market 218 

Finish, proper . . . 115 

Fitting, and showing Ill 

for show . Ill 

Flanks, 91 

front 79 

rear 79 

Fleshing, 92 

deep 89 

heavy 35 

natural 115 

Floors to houses 152 

Florida . 14, 15, 16 

Food 22 

supply 28, 33, 116 

supply and health 204 

supply available 33 

supply inadequate 50, 121 

Foot 79 

Forage crops, . . . . . . . . . .13, 124 

leguminous . . . . . . , . . . 128 

Form 83, 87, 112 

Fresh pork, keeping . 251 

Front leg 79 

Fruits 10 

fallen 11 

Full blooded . 41 

Gains, cost of . . 212 

rate of 212 

Garbage . 145 

Georgia . . . 14, 15, 16 

Germinal cells, . 18, 26 

male 25 

weakness of 44 

Germ plasm . . . 18, 26, 199 

Gilts, 9!; 

care of 1 ''."'; 

Gestation, 170 

period of . , . 167 

termination of 1P7 



INDEX 



271 



Goober, hog 
Grade boars 
Grading up . 
Grades, 

high 

market 
Graffian follicle 
Grains, 

winter 
Grass, . 

carpet 

crab 

summer . 
Grazing, 

lots . 

type 
Grazing crops, 

annual 

perennial 

rotations 
Ground peas 
Growth 
Guinea 
Gulf Coast . 
Habits, bad . 

of swine . 
Hair, . 

condition 
Ham 
Hampshire, 

adaptability of 

association 

characteristics 

origin 
Hardening fat 
Hay, alfalfa 

cowpea . 

red clover 
Head, . 

cheese 
Health 
Heart, fatty degeneration 

growth 
Heat, . 

periods of 
Herd, foundation 
Heredity, 

laws of 
Herdsman . 



of 



5, 6, 



103, 



79, 





Page 






144 






39 




35 


, 43 




41 


, 42 
42 

228 
99 
10 

124 




4,5, 


128 

143 

143 

5 




9 


, 10 


155, 


157, 


162 
36 


121, 


123, 


127 
127 
127 


124, 


'l25, 


126 

8 

25 

59 

15 

173 
52 




'll2. 


175 
117 


3, 87 


, 90, 


248 




52, 


101 
68 
68 
67 
67 


8, 


116, 


148 
144 
144 
144 




8? 


, 88 

259 

28 

179 

79 

27 


26 


, 46, 


166 
96 


17, 1 


8, 22 


, 25 

18 


120, 


159, 


170 



272 INDEX 

Page 

Hernia 200, 201, 202 

Hide 104, 176 

High grades 38, 41 

Hind leg 79 

Hips, . , 83 

points of 79 

Hock 79 

Hog, breeding 28 

houses, stationary 153 

oilers 208 

points of 79 

Hog cholera, 181 

acute 182 

chronic 182 

diagnosis 183 

distribution 183 

inoculation 186 

prevention 183 

serum 183, 184 

symptons 182 

Hogs, number per acre 125 

number to grow 33 

washing 112 

weights 84 

Home, pork for 242 

Houses, 151, 152 

A-shaped, portable 154 

movable shelter 155 

shed roofed, portable 154 

Housing 4 

Hybrids 20 

Ideal, fat hog 85 

market type 81 

producer's 81 

Impressions, maternal 18 

Improved swine 41, 42 

Inbreeding 22, 23 

Indigestion 180 

Individuality 17, 22, 37 

Infection, 18 

prevention of 205 

Infectious diseases ^ 178 

Inheritance of acquired characters 19 

Inspection, federal 232 

Irish grazier 53, 56, 70 

Japan clover 6 

Jowl 79, 83 

Judges 80, 109, 115, 120 

Judging, 103 



INDEX 273 

Page 

Judging, bases for 80 

breeding swine 95 

method in 83 

of swine 13 

swine 80 

swine, standard 80 

Kentucky, 14, 15, 16 

blue grass pasture 140 

Kerosene 207 

Killing hogs 244 

Labor, 7 

saving 149 

Lameness 189 

Lard, 121, 260 

breeds 53 

rendering 260 

type 36, 53, 81, 212 

Large black, 72 

association 73 

characteristics 73 

origin 73 

Large Yorkshire, 52, 63, 64, 101 

adaptability 70 

association . , 70 

characteristics 69 

distribution 70 

importation 69 

origin 69 

size . . 69 

size of litters 70 

Laws of breeding 18 

Lean and fat 88 

Lean meat 92 

Legs, 83, 90 

Legumes, 4, 5, 116, 122 

summer 124 

winter 124 

Leguminous forage crops 128 

Lespedeza 132, 144 

Lice 196 

Limitations 7 

Line breeding 23 

Linseed meal 114, 144 

Litters, age of sow on 46 

large 28 

marking 160 

per year 159 

securing large 45 

size of 46 



274 INDEX 

Page 

Liverwurst 259 

Live stock, droppings 11 

exchange 225, 227 

farming 1 

Local buyers 221 

Locomotor organs, diseases of 189 

Loin 79, 83, 87, 89 

Louse, hog 199 

Lots, hog ; . . 171 

Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . 14, 15, 16 

Male germ cells , 25 

Mammitis ........... 193 

Management, swine 5, 13, 150 

faulty 44 

Mange 199 

Manure, barnyard 2, 3 

pile 206 

Marbling • . . 238 

Market classes .- . .227, 228 

flexibility of 228 

Market, classification ■ . . 227 

conditions 214 

costs . 225 

demands 28, 34, 81, 106, 209, 215 

demands, change in 215 

finishing for - . . 218 

grades 228 

hog, ideal . 82, 84 

hogs 217 

pork 214 

standards . 106 

type 34, 229 

type, ideal 81 

values , 6 

Marketing, .9, 209, 220 

age for 216 

age of 94 

costs of 211 

early 218 

finished pork . . . 213 

home retail . . . ... . . . .233, 234 

size for . 216 

through local buyers . 221 

Markets 6 

central 224 

seasonal demands of 213 

Maryland 14, 15, 16 

Maternal impressions 18 

Mature swine, size of 121 



INDEX 275 

Page 

Maturity, age of lOi 

early 22, 52, 94, 102, 109, 149 

quicker 39 

Meat animals 10 

Meat meal I45 

Medicines, administering 176 

Mendelian proportion 20 

Mendelism 19, 20 

Mendel's Law 20 

Methods of feeding 16 

Middle Yorkshire 101 

Millets, foxtail 143 

Middlings 145 

Milk, butter 11 

skim 11 

Mineral matter 189 

Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . 14, 15, 16 

Mites 196 

Molasses . . ^ 114, 122, 144 

Mule Foot, association 69 

characteristics 68 

distribution 69 

origin 68 

Mutations 48, 50 

Native swine 42 

Natural selection 28 

Neapolitan 49, 62, 64, 70 

Neck . . . ^ 79, 83, 88 

Nervous system, diseases of 190 

Nettle rash 195 

New Jersey 16 

Normandy swine 56 

North Carolina 14, 15, 16 

Number, of breeds 52 

of hogs to grow 33 

of pigs to litter 44 

Nut grass 5 

Oats 6, 124 

pasture 133 

pasture, feeding value of 133 

pasture, supplementing 133 

Offal 240 

O. I. C, 52 

association 58 

origin 58 

Oiler, hog 208 

Ohio Improved Chesters 52, 58 

Oklahoma ^^' ^^' iS 

Old English . ^^ 



276 INDEX 

Page 

Old Yorkshire 69 

Olein 147 

Orchitis 191 

Organs, diseased 44 

Origin, of breeds 50 

of strains 50 

Original swine 49 

Ova 99 

Ovary 26 

Oviduct 26 

Ovum, 26 

fertilization of 26 

Packing plants, 12, 225, 229 

Palmatin 147 

Paralysis 190 

Parasites 175 

Parasitical diseases of swine 178, 196 

Parturition 26 

Pasterns 91 

Pasture, 125, 168 

Bermuda 131 

sweet potatoes 130 

Pastures 6 

leguminous 116 

Pasturing . . 5, 10 

Peanut pasture 130 

Peanuts, 6, 8, 10, 124, 128, 131, 146 

feeding value of 131 

grazing 131 

yields 130 

Pedigree 18, 22, 31, 38, 97 

Pens and enclosures 157 

Period of heat, 26, 46 

appearance of 46 

Peritonitis 201 

Pickled pigs' feet 259 

Piedmont area ^ 

Pig club agent 12 

Pig clubs, 13, 14 

boys' 12 

Pigs, 116 

eatmg ... i<o 

exercise for 1^0 

fall 161 

from old sows 1°3 

from young sows 153 



sprmg 
to litter 



161 
44 



to litter, controlling '*^ 



INDEX 277 

Page 

Pigs' feet, pickled 259 

Pindars 131 

Pharyngo-laryngitis 193 

Pneumonia 194 

Plasm, germ 19 

Pleurisy 194 

Points of hog 79 

Poland-China, 52, 53, 68, 73, 101 

adaptability 54 

associations 56 

blood lines 54 

description 54 

distribution 55 

fecundity 55 

origin of 53 

size of litters 55 

Pork, 235 

as a food . . . 235 

breeding for 34 

composition of 235 

cuts of 240, 248 

finished 213 

for home use 242 

fresh, consumption of 214 

palatable 215 

producers 214 

protein in • . • . . 236 

production, breeding for ....... 43 

limitations of • • . . 7 

profits from ....•••.. 211 

slaughtering * . . . .236, 237 

soft **.... 146 

tender . 215 

type, ideal • ... 35, 85 

types, early 84 

Portuguese . i . . . 59 

Potato, sweet 130 

Pregnancy, 26, 47, 165 

double 47 

Pregnant sows, care of 168 

Prepotency, 22, 39, 104 

of pure-bred boars 39 

Preservatives .......... 252 

Process, reproductive 24 

Producers, ideal 81 

Production, cost of 164 

Profits 211 

Prolapsus of anus 203 

Prolificacy . 27, 103 



278 INDEX 

Page 

Protein 122, 147 

Protoplasm 25 

Pulse rate of hog 176 

Pumpkins 144 

Pure-bred, 41 

advantage of 41 

boars, 16, 31, 43, 96 

prepotency of 39 

hogs for farmers 38 

pigs, market for 167 

sire 35, 41 

sows 96, 167 

swine . . . 33, 38 

swine business, future of 33 

tempting 33 

swine, expensive 40 

swine, marketing 209 

proportion of 30 

shipping 210 

type of . ._ ^ 39, 40 

type, characteristics of 40 

Quality, 83, 85, 90, 92, 96, 105, 114, 212, 227 

extreme 91 

in breeding swine 104 

Rape, 6, 124 

feeding value 135 

pasture 135 

value per acre 135 

Rations, balancing 147 

calculating 147 

Razorback . ^ 9 

Recipes for curing pork 254 

Record associations, 22, 77 

purpose of 77 

work of 78 

Red clover 6 

adaptability 142 

feeding value of 142 

pasture • . • • 142 

supplements to . . . 142 

Registration of swine 40, 77 

Reproduction 25 

Reproductive, cells 18 

functions, limiting 44 

organs, diseases of 191 

process 24 

system, diseases of 192 

Resoiration of swine ^ 176 

Respiratory system, diseases of 193 



INDEX 279 

Page 

Reversion 27, 35 

Ribs 89 

Rice by-products 144 

Rickets 189 

Rooting . 173 

Rubbing post 208 

Rump 70, 83 

Runts 100 

Ruptures 202, 203 

Russian 53 

Rye, 6 

pasture 139 

pasture, feeding value 140 

pasture, supplementing . 140 

Sacking and keeping pork 257 

Sales, combination 210 

consignment 210 

Salicylic acid 252 

Salt 252 

Saltpeter 252 

Sanitation 13, 195, 204 

Santonin 198 

Saturation 18 

Sausage, 258 

making 242 

Scalding 242, 244 

Science of breeding 18 

Score card 82, 83 

Scraping 242, 245 

Scrapple 260 

Scrubs 42, 97 

Scrub boars 39 

Scrub sire 41 

Scrub swine 42 

Season . 125 

Selecting breeding swine 38 

Selection 17, 19, 25 

artificial 17 

basis of 19 

breeding swine 102 

natural 17 

of boar 43 

Selections, how to make 98 

Self-feeders, 148, 149 

use of 149 

Selling, better methods of 32 

Septicaemia 179 

Serum, administration of . . . .... 185 

cost of .'.....■••» • 185 



280 



NDEX 



Page 



Serum, hog cholera . 










184 


hog cholera, dosage 










185 


Sex, 










227 


character 










98 


control of 










45 


determination of . 










28 


Sexual functions, overworking . 






. 




44 


Sexualit}' .... 










95 


Shade 










151 


Sheath, foul 










192 


Shelter, 










. 22, 151 


and health 










204 


for swine 










150 


Shelters .... 










113 


Shipping, co-operative 










.222, 223 


direct to market 










221 


facilities, lack of . 










223 


of swine, co-operative . 










221 


pure-bred swine 






. 




210 


Shipment, preparing hogs for 










219 


Ship, when to ... . 










219 


Shorts 










145 


Shoulder .... 










79, 83, 87, 88, 248 


Show, feeding for 










112 


fitting .... 










111, 113, 114, 116 


equipment for 










112 


Showing, .... 










.106, 107, 117 


equipment for 










119 


overfitting for 










115 


proper .... 










120 


Show ring, .... 






34, 


*106, 


108, 111, 118, 120 


classification . 










111 


standards . . . , 










108 


Shows, important 










109 


Show-yard standards . 










115 


Siamese .... 










. 49, 64 


Sides 








'. . . 79, 83 


Size ..... 








. 22, 23, 24, 92, 96, 102 


Skim milk .... 








11 


Skin 










.104, 112, 117 


Slaughter, animals for 










243 


Slaughtering, 








237 


co-operative . 








242 


Sleeping quarters 








.155, 158 


Small Yorkshire 


, 






52, 58, 69, 101 


adaptability 


. 






59 


association 


. 






59 


description 


. 




' . . 59 


Small White 




. 






59 



INDEX 



281 



Smokehouses 
Smoking meats . 

materials for . 
Smoke room 
Snout . 
Soda, baking 
Soft pork 

hardening 
Soil fertility, 

increasing 
Soil conservation 
Solway . 
Somatic cells 
Somatic characters 
Sore mouth . 
Sorghums, . 

saccharine 

non-saccharine 
Southern type 
South Carolina 
Sow and pigs, care of 
Sow, quality in . 
Sows, old 

pure-bred 

size of 

young 
Soy beans . 
Soy bean meal 
Soy bean pasture, 

feeding value of 

supplementing 
Soy beans, feed value 

supplementing 

yield 
Spanish red . 
Spaying 
Spermatozoa 
Spring pigs . 
Standards, show ring 
Starch . 
Stearin . 
Sterility 
Sticking hogs 
Stifle joint . 
Stock hogs . 
Stockyards, 

central 
Strains, 

of swine . 



14 



125, 



Page 

257 

255 

257 

256 

79, 83 

252 

8, 131 

131 

1, 2, 10 

9, 10 

1, 2 

59, 69 

25 

18 

194 

6 

144 

144 

213 

, 15, 16 

164 

105 

163 

96 

46 

163 

128, 137 

137 

137 

137 

137 

138 

138 

138 

59 

202 

25, 26 

161 

108 

114 

147 

44, 191 

244 

79 

95 

224, 225 

230 

24 

50 



282 



INDEX 



Strains, origin of 
Style . 
Sudan grass 
Suffolk . 
Sugar . 
Siiidae . 
Sulphur 
Sunlight 
Sun scald 
Sunshine 
Sunstroke 
Superfoetation 
Superfecundation 
Surgery 

Surgical diseases . 
Sus Cri status 
Sus Indicus . 
Sus Scrofa . 
Sweet potatoes, . 

feeding value of 

pasture 
Swine, bacon type 

breeders . 

breeders' association, county 

breeds of 

breeding as a business 

breeding, co-operative 

breeding principles 

breeding terms 

color of . 

cross-bred 

diseases . 

distribution of 

grazing . 

high-grade 

improved 

influence of domestication on 

lard type . 

native 

original . 

plague 

plasticity of . 

pure-bred 

registration of 

scrub 

shows 
Tail 
Tamworth 

adaptability 



5, 6, 



112. 



Page 
50 
93 
143 
59 
114, 252 
49 
207 
151, 174 
196 
5 
190 
27, 47 
27 
178 
200 
49 
49 
49 
124, 128 
130 
130 
36 
4 
32 
48, 51 
32 
31 
17 
41 
46 
38 
5 
51 
9 
38 
42 
49 
36 
42 
49 
194 
48 
38 
77 
42 
81 
79 
52, 101 
71 



INDEX 



283 



Tamworth, as feeders 

association 

characteristics 

distribution 

importation 

origin 
Tankage 
Temperament 
Temperature of hog 
Tenancy 

Tenderness of pork- 
Tennessee 
Teosinte 

Terms, swine-breedin< 
Testicle 
Texas . 

Thin rind, origin . 
Thoroughbred 
Thrift . 
Thumps, 

causes 

treatment 
Tonics . 
Trichinosis . 
Trimming cuts of pork 
Transportation, . 

early methods of 
Truck crops . 
Tuberculosis 
Tumors 
Turpentine . 
Tusks of boars . 
Type, . 

bacon 

breed 

breeding for , 

for South 

grazing . 

ideal 

ideal market . 

instability of . 

lard . 

market 

pork 

profitable 
Types, . 

of swine . 

early maturing 
Udder, congestion of 



201 



Page 
71 
72 
70 
72 
71 
70 
145 
83, 93 
176 
4 
215 
14, 15, 16 
143 
41 
25 

14, 15, 16 

67 

41 

24, 95 

187 

188 

188 

114 

197 

249 

119 

224 

10 

194 

202, 203 

198 



172 

36, 81, 97, 98, 212 
36, 53, 212 
103, 104 
35 
76 
36 
82 
81 
24 
36, 53, 212 
229 
82, 104 
109 
24 
53 
167, 215 
26 



284 INDEJC 

Page 

Uniformity of pigs 43 

Unit characters 20, 50 

Urticaria 195 

Uterus 26 

Utility, 17, 37, 38, 227 

breed for 36 

Utilization of feed 17 

Vagina 44 

Value, per head 16 

of swine 11 

Variation 19, 25 

Variations, 17, 48 

acquired 19 

congenital 19 

in carcasses 237 

inherent 19 

in weights 101 

Vats, dipping 206 

Velvet beans, 6, 128, 144 

feed value of 142 

for pasture 141 

supplements to 142 

yield 141 

Ventilation 153 

Vermifuges 114, 198 

Vermicides 198 

Vessels for curing 252 

Vetch, pasture 139 

tame 6 

wild 6 

Vetches, 128 

feeding value 139 

supplementing 139 

Veterinarians 177 

Victoria, adaptability 72 

association 72 

characteristics 72 

origin 72 

Vigor 22, 24, 39, 92, 95, 102 

Virginia 14, 15, 16 

Vitality . 93, 103 

Wallows, hog 195, 206 

concrete 206 

Warren county pig 53 

Waste and culls 11 

Water 151 

supply 158 

supply and health 204 

Watermelons 144 



INDEX 



285 



Washing 

Weaning the pig . 

Weight 

Weights, 
average . 
standard . 
variations in . 

West Virginia 

Wheat bran . 

Wheat by-products, 
feeding value of 
supplementing 

White Leicester 

White Suffolk 

Wholesale cuts 

Windsor 

Wire grass . 

Worms, 
kidney- 
lung 
pin . 
round 
thorn-head 
treatment for . 
whip 

Yellow wash 

Yorkshire 



Page 

117 

164 

83, 86, 117, 227 

84 

101 

101 

101 

14, 15, 16 

144 

140 

140 

140 

69 

63 

87 

59 

5 

196 

199 

198 

197 

196 

196 

198 

197 

258 

51 



H 2.88 










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6 .jS^HUDIli^ r ^^ C,-7 






















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HECKMAN 

1 BINDERY INC. 

^ AUG 88 

W- N. MANCHESTER, 






